diff --git a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/appendixA.tex b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/appendixA.tex index d3c1482..00277aa 100644 --- a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/appendixA.tex +++ b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/appendixA.tex @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ \centering \tabcolsep=5pt \begin{longtable}{lclll} -\caption{Table containing all stars of spectra type M for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} +\caption{Table containing all main-sequence stars of spectral type M for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogue identifiers respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} \label{apA:list_of_m_stars}\\ \hline\hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\ @@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ V* V692 Tau & M: & TIC 149923415 & - & sine \\ \centering \tabcolsep=5pt \begin{longtable}{lclll} -\caption{Table containing all stars of spectra type K for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} +\caption{Table containing all main-sequence stars of spectral type K for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogue idetifiers respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} \label{apA:list_of_k_stars}\\ \hline\hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\ @@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ V* CC Eri & K7V & TIC 142206123 & - & sine \\ \centering \tabcolsep=5pt \begin{longtable}{lclll} -\caption{Table containing all stars of spectra type G for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} +\caption{Table containing all main-sequence stars of spectral type G for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} \label{apA:list_of_g_stars}\\ \hline\hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\ @@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ HD 220186 & G9Ve & TIC 49619607 & - & sine \\ \centering \tabcolsep=5pt \begin{longtable}{lclll} -\caption{Table containing all stars of spectra type F for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} +\caption{Table containing all main-sequence stars of spectral type F for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogue identifiers respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} \label{apA:list_of_f_stars}\\ \hline\hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\ @@ -195,7 +195,7 @@ Kepler-1084 & F8V & TIC 267749737 & KIC 10857519 & sine \\ \centering \tabcolsep=5pt \begin{longtable}{lclll} -\caption{Table containing all stars which where analysed. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} +\caption{Table containing all stars for which either no flares have been found, or which did not match the spectral types M, K, G or F. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogue identifiers respectively. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} \label{apA:list_of_unused_stars}\\ \hline\hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\ @@ -450,7 +450,7 @@ SDSS J192715.88+380808.2 & sdB+dM & - & KIC 2991403 & sine \\ \centering \tabcolsep=5pt \begin{longtable}{lclll} -\caption{Table containing all stars which where analysed. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} +\caption{Table containing all stars which where analysed. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogue identifiers respectively. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.} \label{apA:list_of_all_stars}\\ \hline\hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\ diff --git a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-conclusion.tex b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-conclusion.tex index 1a0ed47..448d2df 100644 --- a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-conclusion.tex +++ b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-conclusion.tex @@ -2,6 +2,6 @@ % better algorithms, handle edge cases better, analyse more stars, take kepler/k2 long cadence into consideration for more data, create plots for flare peaks between x and y -In conclusion the only cumulative results which shows a significant spot dependence are those for the G type stars. It shows a significant increase in flares during the phase minimum over the overall flare distribution. The distribution has a similar form to a bell curve. The same goes for the two selected G type stars BD-08 995 and TYC 4595-107-1 which were presented and discussed. The histograms for K dwarfs on the other hand do not have the form of a bell curve. There appears a singular peak in the histogram with 10 bins at the phase minimum, with a few additional narrower peaks in the histogram with 30 bins. This could indicate a dependence of some sort, but a more detailed view at the individual stars is needed. As this category includes V* V471 Tau (close binary system with a white dwarf), similar interactions could happen on other stars. While there is no significant result for a spot dependence of the detected flares on M dwarfs, some individual stars show behaviour which would indicate this. HK Aqr and KOI-256 as examples, but 2MASS J19230963+3739397 also shows an interesting behaviour and should be studied in more detail as it shows most flares at the lightcurve maxima.\\ -Overall improvements to the folding algorithms are required to handle edge cases better (e.g. KOI-256) , while not breaking for others. This could either be done automatically, or by setting special parameters for individual stars. Even though the latter would require manual user interaction and checking the edge cases manually. Additionally a common folding epoch for multiple fits files of the same star could be implemented. A good example would be V471 Tau, which showed a consistent spot modulation in some of its TESS lightcurves which differed from its rotational period. Implementing something like this could guarantee that the (in this case) transit of the white dwarf would always be at the same position in the phase, and not "jump" between the center and the edges. Furthermore the energy for the flares could be calculated. For this an improvments for the flare duration algorithm is required though, as it currently is just an estimation and does not account for the longest flare durations. It neither makes a distinction between TESS lightcurves with a 2 minute cadence and the Kepler/K2 short cadence data which has a cadence of 1 minute.\\ -Furthermore more stars could be taken into consideration. While the Kepler/K2 missions are complete, the TESS mission is being extended and still observing as of writing. One could also take into account Kepler long cadence data (30 minute cadence), which would not be able to detect shorter duration flares, but is available for a larger amount of stars. +In conclusion the only cumulative results which shows a significant spot dependence are those for G type stars. This distribution shows a significant increase in flares during the phase minimum over the overall flare distribution. The distribution has a shows a strong similarity to a bell curve. The same accounts for the two selected G type stars BD-08 995 and TYC 4595-107-1 which were presented and discussed. The histograms for K dwarfs on the other hand do not reveal similarities to a bell curve. There appears a singular peak in the histogram with 10 bins at the phase minimum, with a few additional narrower peaks in the histogram with 30 bins. This could indicate a dependence of some sort, but a more detailed view at the individual stars is needed. As this category includes V* V471 Tau (close binary system with a white dwarf), similar interactions could happen on other stars. While there is no significant result for a spot dependence of the detected flares on M dwarfs, some individual stars show a behaviour similar to G-stars. HK Aqr and KOI-256 are here good examples, whereas 2MASS J19230963+3739397 shows few flares in the minimum but more flares in the maximum of the phasefolded lightcurve.\\ +Overall improvements to the folding algorithms are required to handle edge cases better (e.g. KOI-256) , while not breaking for others. This could either be done automatically, or by setting special parameters for individual stars. Even though the latter would require manual user interaction and checking the edge cases manually. Additionally a common folding epoch for multiple fits files of the same star could be implemented. A good example would be V471 Tau, which showed a consistent spot modulation in some of its TESS lightcurves which differed from its rotational period. Implementing something like this could guarantee that the (in this case) transit of the white dwarf would always be at the same position in the phase, and not "jumping" between the center and the edges. Furthermore the energy for the flares could be calculated. For this improvments for the flare duration algorithm is required though, as it currently is just an estimation and does not account for the longest flare durations. It neither makes a distinction between TESS lightcurves with a 2 minute cadence and the Kepler/K2 short cadence data which has a cadence of 1 minute.\\ +Furthermore more stars could be taken into consideration. While the Kepler/K2 missions are complete, the TESS mission is being extended and still observing as of writing this thesis. One could also take into account Kepler long cadence data (30 minute cadence), which would not be able to detect shorter duration flares, but being available for a larger amount of stars. diff --git a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-discussion.tex b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-discussion.tex index 1dce7ed..6eaf95a 100644 --- a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-discussion.tex +++ b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-discussion.tex @@ -1,12 +1,16 @@ \chapter{Discussion \label{sec:discussion}} -The flare to spot correlation in this study is based on a large sample of known active stars, which were observed by the Kepler/K2 and TESS missions. To also catch shorter events, short-cadence data was used for Kepler/K2. Not all stars analysed were used though to generate the plots in the results section (see table \ref{apA:list_of_unused_stars}). This list contains stars that either did not match the spectral types which were analysed in this study (e.g. some A type stars from the list of stars by \cite{althukair_starlist}), could not produce valid fits (reached 30 tries during the fit optimization for folded lightcurves) or no consistent period was found. The full list of stars analyzed can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_all_stars}.\\ -The analysis was done with a self written python program (discussed in chapter \ref{sec:gui}). The reason a GUI was made was for ease of management of the data (e.g. easily looking up parameters of a star), as well as checking individual results in a fast and easy way during the development stage. This also allowed to quickly compare the outputs of the algorithms between different fits files of the same star as well as between different stars fits files. The algorithms are based on the approaches of \cite{kepler_411_study}, \cite{au_mic_flaring_spi} and \cite{doyle_2018}. The thresholds described in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:flare_detection} for the flare detection algorithm have been set by trial and visual inspection of the lightcurves of multiple stars/fits files. The last step for flare detection, which was introduced to prevent failures of the flattening algorithm to be detected as (massive) flares, was introduced due to the results for the stars 2MASS J19033576+3941263 (TESS sectors 40, 41 and 53), 2MASS J19370439+4626209 (TESS sector 54) and V* V452 Lyr (Kepler target table ID 55). 2MASS J19033576+3941263, also known by KOI-6423 or KIC 4544623 shows regular dips in its lightcurve, which could indicate one or multiple transiting planets. It has currently been marked as a false positive candidate in the NASA Exoplanet Archive (\cite{koidr25}, \href{https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/overview/KOI-6423}{https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/overview/KOI-6423}). The TESS lightcurves for KOI-6423 can be found in appendix \ref{apC} in figures \ref{apC:fig:KOI-6423-TESS_lightcurves1} and \ref{apC:fig:KOI-6423-TESS_lightcurves2}. While there are no noteworthy dips upon manual inspection in the lightcurve for 2MASS J19370439+4626209, flattening it still generates peaks of over 800 on a normalized lightcurve. V* V452 Lyr was observed in multiple Kepler target table IDs, with the only detected flares (4 total) in target table ID 55. The lightcurve itself is very flat (see figure \ref{apC:fig:V452Lyr-Kepler_lightcurves} in appendix \ref{apC}). Further to notice, the flare detection can only distinguish high and low flare peaks, but it does not calculate the flare energy.\\ -While the folding algorithm (see section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:lightcurve_folding}) works on most stars/fits files, it has its limitations in edge cases like V* HK Aqr or KOI-256 as described in sections \ref{results:hk_aqr} and \ref{results:koi_256}. It is set to check for an additional periodicity signal if the fit for the folded lightcurve has two peaks which are further than 10\% of the total phase from the edge. While it is expected to find two peaks when folding and fitting a sine function due to marging of error of the fitting parameters, there has to be set a limit for when to search for additional periodicity. A well working (and near perfect) example is V471 Tau. It shows additional periodicity in the TESS lightcurves 42, 32 and 44 (see figure \ref{apB:fig:V471Tau-TESS_foldedLC} in appendix \ref{chap:apB}), but not 70 and 71. Additionally the shift by the difference of the fit minimum to the (currently used) epoch for the fold is necessary to generate reliable results, as otherwise it has been found the minimum of the fit/folded lightcurve can vary by up to \textasciitilde25\% depending on which first minimum is detected in the lightcurve.\\\\ +The investigation flare to spot relation in this study is based on a large sample of known active stars, which were observed by the Kepler/K2 and TESS missions. To also catch shorter events, short-cadence data was used for Kepler/K2. Not all stars analysed were used though to generate the plots in the results section (see table \ref{apA:list_of_unused_stars}). This list contains stars that either did not match the spectral types which were analysed in this study (e.g. some A type stars from the list of stars by \cite{althukair_starlist}), could not produce valid fits (reached 30 iterations during the fit optimization for folded lightcurves) or no consistent period was found. The full list of stars analyzed can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_all_stars}.\\ +The analysis was done with a self written python program (discussed in chapter \ref{sec:gui}). The reason for developing a GUI was to ease the management of the data (e.g. easily looking up parameters of a star), as well as checking individual results in a fast and easy way during the development stage. This also allowed to quickly compare the outputs of the algorithms between different fits files of the same star as well as between different stars. The algorithms are based on the approaches of \cite{kepler_411_study}, \cite{au_mic_flaring_spi} and \cite{doyle_2018}. The thresholds described in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:flare_detection} for the flare detection algorithm have been set by trial and visual inspection of the lightcurves of multiple stars/fits files. The last step of the flare detection algorithm, as discussed in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:flare_detection}, was implemented to prevent failures due to the flattening algorithm massively inverting dips in the lightcurves. This happened for the lightcurves of 2MASS J19033576+3941263 (TESS sectors 40, 41 and 53), 2MASS J19370439+4626209 (TESS sector 54) and V* V452 Lyr (Kepler target table ID 55). 2MASS J19033576+3941263, also known by KOI-6423 or KIC 4544623 shows regular dips in its lightcurve, which could indicate one or multiple transiting planets. It has currently been marked as a false positive candidate in the NASA Exoplanet Archive (\cite{koidr25}, \href{https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/overview/KOI-6423}{https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/overview/KOI-6423}). The TESS lightcurves for KOI-6423 can be found in appendix \ref{apC} in figures \ref{apC:fig:KOI-6423-TESS_lightcurves1} and \ref{apC:fig:KOI-6423-TESS_lightcurves2}. While there are no noteworthy dips upon manual inspection in the lightcurve for 2MASS J19370439+4626209, flattening it still generates peaks with values of over 800 on a normalized lightcurve. V* V452 Lyr was observed in multiple Kepler target table IDs, with the only detected flares (4 total) in target table ID 55. The lightcurve itself is very flat (see figure \ref{apC:fig:V452Lyr-Kepler_lightcurves} in appendix \ref{apC}). Further to notice, the flare detection can only distinguish between high and low flare peaks, but it does not calculate the flare energy. But we can say that all flares detected on G type stars are superflares, as the lowest detectable flare peak by this algorithm is 1.003, and \cite{solar_like_superflares} found that an increase of 0.1\% in flux (flare peak of 1.001) is enough for those flares to be categorized as superflares.\\ +While the folding algorithm (see section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:lightcurve_folding}) works on most stars/fits files, it has its limitations in edge cases like V* HK Aqr or KOI-256 as described in sections \ref{results:hk_aqr} and \ref{results:koi_256}. It is set to check for an additional periodicity signal if the fit for the folded lightcurve has two peaks which are further away than 10\% of the total phase from the edge. While it is expected to find two peaks when folding and fitting a sine function due to marging of error of the fitting parameters, there has to be set a limit for when to search for additional periodicity. A well working (and near perfect) example is V471 Tau. It shows additional periodicity in the TESS lightcurves 42, 32 and 44 (see figure \ref{apB:fig:V471Tau-TESS_foldedLC} in appendix \ref{chap:apB}), but not in 70 and 71. Additionally the shift by the difference of the fit minimum to the (currently used) epoch for the fold is necessary to generate reliable results, as otherwise it has been found that the minimum of the fit/folded lightcurve can vary by up to \textasciitilde25\% depending on which first minimum is detected in the lightcurve.\\\\ -Out of a total of \textasciitilde160 M dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 49 stars. This could be due to a not sensitive enough algorithm or instruments, too noisy data or it could be that there were just no flares during the observation time. For the remaining 49 stars, a total of \textasciitilde3500 flares were detected. Using all available flares, there was no significant spot dependency detected in the histogram with 10 bins. In the third bin there were \textasciitilde50 flares less detected compared to other bins. This bin is located in the transition from the phase maxima to minima. While not being significant, the 6th bin has the most flares detected, which would be at the phase minimum. This could show a possible dependency with more available data. The data also contains the detected flares from KOI-256 and V* HK Aqr, which were not folded correctly. Manually comparing the results for V* HK Aqr (figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period}), as well as the folded lightcurves shows that for TESS sector 29 the detected minimum ($\pm$ quarter of the phase) the amount of detected flares flipped. While more flares should be counted in the minimum (see figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC_Period}) compared to the maximum (see figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC}), the opposite is the case. Similarly for TESS sector 42. Overall these changes make the spot dependence of flares on V* HK Aqr more clear, as the histogram (10 bins) with only the rotational period folded lightcurves indicates a spot dependency. There are significantly more flares counted around the minimum compared to the phase maximum. The flares with the highest peaks V* HK Aqr were also detected during the phase minimum in TESS sector 29 with a normalized peak of up to 1.8. KOI-256 shows a similar behaviour, showing a clear spot dependence when using only period folded lightcurves for the histogram, while having more spread out peaks around the phase minimum when using all spot modulation folded lightcurves.\\ +Out of a total of \textasciitilde160 M dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 49 stars. This could be due to the algorithm or instruments being possibly not sufficiently sensitive, too noisy data or it could be that there were simply no flares during the observations. For the remaining 49 stars, a total of \textasciitilde3500 flares was detected. Using all available flares, there was no significant spot dependency detected in the histogram with 10 bins. In the third bin there were \textasciitilde50 flares less detected compared to other bins. This bin is located in the transition from the phase maxima to minima. + +While not being significant, the 6th bin has the most flares detected, and is located at the phase minimum. + +This could show a possible dependency with more available data, similarly to what was found for K type dwarfs. The data also contain the detected flares from KOI-256 and V* HK Aqr, which were not folded correctly. Manually comparing the results for V* HK Aqr (figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period}), the folded lightcurves show that for TESS sector 29 the detected minimum ($\pm$ a quarter of the phase) the amount of detected flares flipped. While more flares should be counted in the minimum (see figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC_Period}) compared to the maximum (see figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC}), the opposite is the case. Similarly for TESS sector 42. Overall these changes make the spot dependence of flares on V* HK Aqr more clear, as the histogram (10 bins) with only the rotational period folded lightcurves indicates a spot dependency. There are significantly more flares counted around the minimum compared to the phase maximum. The flares with the highest peaks V* HK Aqr were also detected during the phase minimum in TESS sector 29 with a normalized peak of up to 1.8. KOI-256 shows a similar behaviour, revealing a clear spot dependence when using only period folded lightcurves for the histogram, while having more spread out peaks around the phase minimum when using all spot modulation folded lightcurves.\\ 2MASS J19230963+3739397 on the other hand is a star, which shows an inverted spot dependency. This could be an indication that similarly to what \cite{kepler_411_210_comparison} found, the spot area is not the only important parameter.\\ -Limiting the flare by maximum flare peak height indicates a dependency of flares on spots. While no flare energies were calculated in this study, this could be parameters to look at in the future. Limiting the flare peak to 1\% above the flux shows a higher count in the phase maxima compared to he phase minima. The same dip as with all flares can be seen here already too. Increasing the flare peak limit to 5\% above the flux shows a nearly identical histogram (in form) to the one with all flares. A noteworthy difference here is the peak in the bin at the phase minimum at $1 \pi$. \cite{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler} found an increase of flares in M and K dwarfs at phase minimum with flares which had a flux increase at their peaks between 1\% and 5\%. The differences could be due to a different set of stars and flare detection methods. +Limiting the flare by maximum flare peak indicates a dependency of flares on spots, which can be seen in figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak} to \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}. While no flare energies were calculated in this study, this could be parameters to look at in the future. Limiting the flare peaks to a maximum of 1.01 shows a higher count in the phase maxima compared to he phase minima. The same dip as with all flares can be seen here already too. Increasing the flare peak limit to 1.05 shows a nearly identical histogram to the one with all flares. A noteworthy difference here is the peak in the bin at the phase minimum at $1 \pi$. \cite{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler} found an increase of flares in M and K dwarfs at phase minimum with flares which had a flux increase at their peaks between 1\% and 5\%. The differences could be due to a different set of stars and flare detection methods. % 14 - 10; 10 - 14 %M dwarfs, all data, no significant dependency of flare appearance on phase using 10 bins. @@ -16,27 +20,27 @@ Limiting the flare by maximum flare peak height indicates a dependency of flares %Limit to max 1.05, nearly identical histograms to all data. (different result to \cite{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler}) %\\\\ -Out of a total of \textasciitilde40 K dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 37 stars. This could be due to a not sensitive enough algorithm or instruments, too noisy data or it could be that there were just no flares during the observation time. Overall the results for the flare distribution on K dwarfs is similar to those of M dwarfs. With the exception of the bin (bins for the histogram with 30 bins) around the phase minimum. This bin shows a significantly increased flare count. One of the, but not the sole cause for this is V* V471 Tau (see section \ref{results:v471_tau}), which is in close orbit with a white dwarf (\cite{v471tau_revised}, \cite{V471tau_magnetic_activity}). This can lead to magnetic interactions between the K dwarf and the white dwarf (\cite{V471tau_magnetic_activity}), which could lead to the increased flarecount seen.\\ -Limiting the flare peaks to greater than 5\% of the flux shows two peaks around the center bin, with one higher bin being at the maximum at phase $0 \pi$. While the two peaks around the phase minimum could indicate a dependency on spots, it is not the only relevant bin found. -Limiting the flare peaks to a maximum of 1\% above the flux shows an interesting pattern. There is a larger count of flares found during the phase minimum, but also during the phase maximum, while less flares have been detected in the transition between phase miminum/maximum. Increasing the allowed flare peak to 5\% above the flux shows a similar pattern, but the gaps between peaks/dips closes and is already very similar to the histogram with all flares. +Out of a total of \textasciitilde40 K dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 37 stars. This could be due to the algorithm or instruments being possibly not sufficiently sensitive, too noisy data or it could be that there were simply no flares during the observations. Overall the results for the flare distribution of K dwarfs is similar to those of M dwarfs. With the exception of the bin (bins for the histogram with 30 bins) around the phase minimum. This bin shows a significantly increased flare count. One of the, but not the sole cause for this is V* V471 Tau (see section \ref{results:v471_tau}), which is in close orbit with a white dwarf (\cite{v471tau_revised}, \cite{V471tau_magnetic_activity}). This can lead to magnetic interactions between the K dwarf and the white dwarf (\cite{V471tau_magnetic_activity}), which may lead to the increased flarecount seen.\\ +Limiting the flare peaks to greater than 1.05 shows two peaks around the center bin, with one higher bin being at the maximum at phase $0 \pi$. While the two peaks around the phase minimum could indicate a dependency on spots, it is not the only relevant bin found. +Limiting the flare peaks to a maximum of 1.01 shows an interesting pattern. There is a larger count of flares found during the phase minimum, but also during the phase maximum, while less flares have been detected in the transition between phase miminum/maximum. Increasing the allowed flare peak to 1.05 shows a similar pattern, but the gaps between peaks/dips vanishes and the histogram becomes already very similar to the histogram with all flares. % K dwarfs, all data, siginificant peak at phase minimum, peak dominated by V471 Tau (discussed later). Slightly more flares from maximum to minimum than minimum to maximum in 10 bins. 30 bins larger dips but also larger peaks in second half of phase compared to first half. % limiting to min 1.05 -> three peaks, dip after maximum and on at phase 1 $\pi$. gradual decrease after minimum. V471 Taus peaks at right before and right after phase minimum. % limiting to <1.01 and 1.05, makes histogram look more and more like with all data, similarly to \cite{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler} peak in center (compared to their M/K plot), but additionally also peak at phase maximum. % max 1.05 already most flares, very similar to with all data. -Out of a total of \textasciitilde80 G dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 21 stars. This could be due to a not sensitive enough algorithm or instruments, too noisy data or it could be that there were just no flares during the observation time. Most of the flares detected had a peak below 5\% above the flux, but as \cite{solar_like_superflares} found, flares with a flux increase between 0.1 to 1\% would already be categorized as superflares. For the flares found in this study for G type stars, there appears to be a spot dependency, as the flare count peaks around the phase minimum. Unlike the other results, there is a gradual fall off to each sides till the phase maximum is reached.\\ -Limiting the flare peaks to a minimum of 1.05 shows three major peaks. The highest being at the phase minimum, while the other two are in the transition between maximum and miminum and minimum and maximum. This does not indicate a pure spot dependency, and a more detailed look at the individual events is necessary.\\ -BD-08 995, which seems to be a late G type star, reflects this trend well. It shows the same bell curve style histogram. Additionally though it also shows a slight increase in flares around the phase maximum. Its highest flare peak was detected around the phase maximum though. The maximum flare count for TYC 4595-107-1 on the other hand is slightly offset to before the phase minimum. It also shows a slight increase of flares around the maximum. Its highest flare peak was detected in the same bin as the highest flare count. +Out of a total of \textasciitilde80 G dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 21 stars. This could be due to the algorithm or instruments being possibly not sufficiently sensitive, too noisy data or it could be that there were simply no flares during the observations. Most of the flares detected show a peak of below 1.05, but as \cite{solar_like_superflares} found, flares with a flux increase between 0.1 to 1\% (peaks of 1.001 to 1.01) would already be categorized as superflares. For the flares found in this study for G type stars, there is a spot dependency, as the flare count peaks around the phase minimum. Unlike the other results, there is a gradual fall off to each sides till the phase maximum is reached. As no energies have been deduced from the Kepler/K2 and TESS observations a categorization in flares and superflares is difficult for all stars investigated in the present study. As for G main-sequence stars a flux increase by already 0.1\% has been defined to correspond to the superflare energy threshold (\cite{solar_like_superflares}), the whole G-star histogram shown in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount} contains superflares only as the threshold of the flare detection algorithm is 0.3\%.\\ +Limiting the flare peaks to a minimum of 1.05 shows three major peaks. The largest being at the phase minimum, while the other two are in the transition between maximum and miminum and minimum and maximum. This does not indicate a pure spot dependency, and a more detailed look at the individual events is necessary.\\ +BD-08 995, which is according to its BV color index and effective temperature a late G type star, reflects this trend well. It shows the same bell curve style histogram as the overall flare number histogram of G-stars. Additionally though it also shows a slight increase in flare number around the phase maximum, its highest flare peak was detected around the phase maximum (see figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-flarepeaks_1.2}). The maximum flare count for TYC 4595-107-1 on the other hand is slightly offset before the phase minimum (see figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-10_Bins}). It also shows a slight increase of flares around the maximum. Its highest flare peak was detected in the same bin as the highest flare count (see figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-flarepeaks_1.27}). % G dwarfs, significant results, increase of flare appearance during phase minimum. Most flares are <1.05 (flares on solar like stars that increase brightness by 0.1\% to 1\% already superflares, \cite{solar_like_superflares}) -> most/all detected flares superflares. Overall dependency on phase/spot appearance. % Limiting to flares >1.05 -> flares during minima and transitions between minima <-> maxima, increasing bins -> more data would be required. -Out of a total of \textasciitilde13 F dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 4 stars. This could be due to a not sensitive enough algorithm or instruments, too noisy data or it could be that there were just no flares during the observation time. While all flares detected are centered around the phase minimum, the total of 5 flares detected is not a large enough sample to come to a conclusion if there exists a flare spot dependency for these stars. +Out of a total of \textasciitilde13 F dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on four stars. This could be due to the algorithm or instruments being possibly not sufficiently sensitive, too noisy data or it could be that there were simply no flares during the observations. While all flares detected are centered around the phase minimum, the total of 5 flares detected is not a sufficiently large sample to draw a definite conclusion on the spot to flare/superflare relation. % For F dwarfs, overall too little data, but the not siginificant amount detected all during phase minimum, could be similar to G dwarfs? -Looking at all results together, there appears to be a slight flare dependence, which is mostly influenced by the results for K and G stars. The dip in the otherwise seemingly stable histogram for the results of M dwarfs propagates for the overall results. All results will be published on github. The program will be available at \href{URL}{text} while the data will be available at \href{URL}{text}. +Looking at all results together, there is a trend that more flares occur when a more spotted stellar hemisphere is visible, than vice versa. This is mostly influenced by the results for K and G stars. The dip in the otherwise seemingly stable histogram for the results of M dwarfs dominates the overall results. All results will be published on github. The program will be available at \href{URL}{text} while the data will be available at \href{URL}{text}. % All data combined, peak at phase minimum dominated by G/K dwarfs, dip in transition maxima -> minima dominated by dip from M dwarf results. diff --git a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-gui.tex b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-gui.tex index a104c86..bef6c30 100644 --- a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-gui.tex +++ b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-gui.tex @@ -107,6 +107,6 @@ The data can then be saved by clicking "File" and then "Save As", which uses the \begin{figure}[pt!] \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{gui/statistics_summary_window.png} - \caption{Debugging statistics window. Has the option to filter data by sources and spectral type for Kepler/K2/TESS pdcsap flux data. It has the ability to show various statistics likes flares per fits file, flares per star (total or normalized to a period of 7 days), or the mean period detected.} + \caption{Debugging statistics window. Has the option to filter data by sources and spectral type for Kepler/K2/TESS pdcsap flux data. It has the ability to show various statistics likes flares per fits file, flares per star (total or normalized to a period of 7 days), or the mean period detected. Plot showing statistics for "Show Flares/File".} \label{fig:summary_statistics_window} \end{figure} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-results.tex b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-results.tex index 7eed69a..d746382 100644 --- a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-results.tex +++ b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-results.tex @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ The results also only contain the data of folded lightcurves which could be fitt This section shows the results for 49 M dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The list of stars can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_m_stars}.\\ Figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins} show flare count histograms, with 10 and 30 phase bins respectively, of the number of flares during the normalized phase.\\ Looking at figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins} there is an even distribution within error of flares across the normalized phase, with the excepion of the bin at phase $0.5 \pi$. The bin at phase $0.5 \pi$ shows a significant dip of roughly twice the error below the surrounding bins.\\ -Looking at the same data, just with 30 instead of 10 bins (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the same dip is visible. In this figure the dip spans 3 bins. Additionally there are additional dips at around phase $0.7 \pi$, $1.3 \pi$ and $1.4 \pi$. Including the error, the major dip (which was already visible in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}) is still below the average. Similar for the dips at phases $0.7 \pi$ and $1.3 \pi$. The dip at phase $1.4 \pi$ on the other hand overlaps with its error with the errorbars of the bins at phase \textasciitilde$1.7 \pi$ and and onward, which are good assumption for an average value. Due to the dips surrounding the center, it may look like there is an increased number of flares in the center. If we look at the errorbars, it is clear that only the bin at phase \textasciitilde$1.25 \pi$ is above the average. +Looking at the same data, just with 30 instead of 10 bins (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the same dip is visible. In this figure the dip spans 3 bins. Additionally there are additional dips at around phase $0.7 \pi$, $1.3 \pi$ and $1.4 \pi$. Including the error, the major dip (which was already visible in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}) is still significantly below the surrounding bins. Similar for the dips at phases $0.7 \pi$ and $1.3 \pi$. The dip at phase $1.4 \pi$ on the other hand overlaps with its error with the errorbars of the bins at phase \textasciitilde$1.7 \pi$ and onward, which are good assumption for an average value. Due to the dips surrounding the center, it may look like there is an increased number of flares in the center. If we look at the errorbars, it is clear that only the bin at phase \textasciitilde$1.25 \pi$ is above the average. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -25,16 +25,16 @@ Looking at the same data, just with 30 instead of 10 bins (figure \ref{fig:M-Fla \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histogram showing the amount of flares per phase of 49 M dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histogram showing the number of flares per phase of 49 M dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:M-Flarecount} \end{figure} -Filtering the data by the minimal flare peak (see figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak} to \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}), makes the trend of figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins} clearer. There are increasinly more flares in the minima at phase $1 \pi$ (more/bigger star spots) and maxima at phase $0$ and $2 \pi$ (less/smaller star spots) compared to the transitions. +Filtering the data by the minimal flare peak, meaning only taking flares into account which have a normalized flare peak of greater than for example 1.25 (an example of flare peak distributions is seen in figures \ref{fig:BD-08_995-flarepeaks_1.2}), is shown in figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak} to \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}, makes the trend of figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins} clearer. There are more flares in the minima at phase $1 \pi$ (more/bigger star spots) and maxima at phase $0$ and $2 \pi$ (less/smaller star spots) compared to the transitions. Taking a closer look at figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak}, which accounts only for normalized flare peaks greater than 1.25 with 10 bins, the same dips (around phases $0.5 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$) as in the previous figure (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}) are visible. Comparing to the dip visible in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}, it widened by 1 bin. -At phase \textasciitilde$1.7 \pi$ to $2 \pi$ there is a major peak. While the last bin overlaps slightly with the one at phase $0.9 \pi$ with accounting for error, the second to last does not.\\ -The same data, just with 30 bins can be seen in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.25_peak}. There are no continuous peaks like in the previous figure, but at the same phases there are bins with an increased number of flares. Additionally, at around phase $0.6 \pi$, there is a larger amount of flares compared to the bins next to it.\\ -Increasing the normalized minimal flare peak further to 1.5 decreases the total amount of flares further, which results in a comparatively large error. This makes the error half the size or even larger than some of the bins in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.5_peak}. Nontheless its visible that the largest flares seem to appear more often around phase $1 \pi$ and phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$. Including the error, those peaks are still higher than the flare count of the in previous figures mentioned dips.\\ -Increasing the bin count to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}) decreases the individual bin heights so far, that the errorbars start to explode in size, which causes all of them to overlap and not give any proper results. +At phase \textasciitilde$1.7 \pi$ to $2 \pi$ there is a major peak. While the error of the last bin overlaps slightly with the one at phase $0.9 \pi$ with accounting for error, the second to last does not.\\ +The same data, just with 30 bins can be seen in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.25_peak}. Peaks in this histogram appear at the same phases as in the histogram with 10 bins. Even though those bins are now partially seperated by bins with a low flare count at phases \textasciitilde$0.2 \pi$, $1 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.8 \pi$. Additionally, at around phase $0.6 \pi$, there is now a smaller peak visible, while there was none in the histogram with 10 bins.\\ +Increasing the normalized minimal flare peak threshold further to 1.5 decreases the total number of flares further, which results in a comparatively large error. This makes the error half the size or even larger than some of the bins in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.5_peak}. Nontheless its visible that the largest flares seem to appear more often around phase $1 \pi$ and phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$. Including the error, those peaks are still higher than the flare count of the in previous figures mentioned dips.\\ +Increasing the number of bins to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}) causes very large error bars which do not allow any proper analysis. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ Increasing the bin count to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_pea \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.25_peak} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.25 per phase of 27 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak}) /30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.25_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.25 per phase of 27 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak}) /30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.25_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.25_peak} \end{figure} \begin{figure}[pt!] @@ -67,14 +67,14 @@ Increasing the bin count to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_pea \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.5 per phase for 20 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.5_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.5 per phase for 20 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.5_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.5_peak} \end{figure} -Doing the opposite and only plotting the histograms for flares with normalized peaks of less than 1.01 can be seed in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak}. -Figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak} shows a similar picture to the histogram with no limits on flare peaks (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}). The difference here though is that there are less flares in the area of the minima around phase $0.5 \pi$ to $1.5 \pi$. Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) shows overall a similar pattern, even though the differences between bins, especially in the center druing the phase minima can be larger than twice the error.\\ -Limiting the normalized flare peaks to <1.05 (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}) shows again similar pattern to the histograms with all data. In figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak} the major difference is that there is a peak around normalized phase $1.1 \pi$, which would be during the folded lightcurve minima. -The difference becomes less obvious when increasing the bin size 30 (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}). While overall the same are visible, there appears a new dip around phase $0.25 \pi$ which is right after the maximum. Also the shape of the peak consisting of multiple bins around phase $1.1 \pi$ changed slightly compared to the one in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}. +Doing the opposite and only plotting the histograms for flares with normalized peaks of less than 1.01 can be seen in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak}. +Figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak} shows a similar picture to the histogram with no filtering (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}). The difference here though is that there are less flares in the region of the minima around phase $0.5 \pi$ to $1.5 \pi$. Increasing the resolution to 30 bins (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) shows overall a similar pattern, even though the differences between bins, especially in the center during the phase minima are larger than twice the error.\\ +Limiting the normalized flare peaks to <1.05 (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}) shows again similar pattern to the histograms with all data. In figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak} the major difference is that there is a peak around normalized phase $1.1 \pi$. +The difference becomes less obvious when increasing the bin size 30 (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}). While overall looks similar to figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}, there appears a new dip around phase $0.25 \pi$ which is right after the maximum. Also the shape of the peak consisting of multiple bins around phase $1.1 \pi$ changed slightly compared to the one in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ The difference becomes less obvious when increasing the bin size 30 (figure \ref \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.01 per phase of 17 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.01 per phase of 17 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak} \end{figure} @@ -108,16 +108,16 @@ The difference becomes less obvious when increasing the bin size 30 (figure \ref \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 32 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 32 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} \end{figure} \FloatBarrier \section{K dwarfs \label{sec:results:k_dwarfs}} -This section shows the results for 37 K dwarfs for which flares could be detected. A full list of the stars used can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_k_stars}.\\ -Figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows the amount of flares per phase with 10 bins of 37 K type dwarfs in used in this study. Overall the distribution is even within error, with a slight increase in flares when going from the maximum to the minimum of the lightcurve at phase $0.5 \pi$, and a slight decrease when going from minimum to maximum at phase $1.5 \pi$. There is also a peak at around $1 \pi$ with around 95 flares compared to the 60-80 flares per bin in the rest of the histogram. One of the major contributions is V* V471 Tau. The individual results for this star are visible in section \ref{sec:results:individual}.\\ -Looking at the same dataset with 30 bins for the histogram (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the peak in the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ is still visible. Additionally there appear more peaks at phase $>1.3 \pi$ ($1.3,~1.6,~1.9 \pi$), while the amount of flares between phase $0 \pi$ and $1 \pi$ shows a slight trend to more flares with dips inbetween and a larger dip right before and after the big peak at phase $1 \pi$ which was also visible in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins} with 10 bins. The major dips at phase $0.7 \pi$, $1.3 \pi$, $1.6 \pi$ and $1.9 \pi$ are all well outside the errorbars of the surrounding peak bins, while the smaller ones between phase $0 \pi$ and $1 \pi$ overlap with their errorbars with their surrounding bins. +This section shows the results for 21 K dwarfs for which flares could be detected. A full list of the stars used can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_k_stars}.\\ +Figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows the number of flares per phase with 10 bins of 21 K type dwarfs in used study. One can see a slight increase in the number of flares when going from the maximum to the minimum of the lightcurve at phase $0.5 \pi$, and a slight decrease when going from minimum to maximum at phase $1.5 \pi$. There is also a peak at around $1 \pi$ with 95 flares compared to the 60-80 flares per bin in the rest of the histogram. One of the major contributions is V* V471 Tau. The individual results for this star are presented in section \ref{sec:results:individual}.\\ +Looking at the same dataset with 30 bins for the histogram (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the peak in the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ is still visible. Additionally there appear more peaks at phase $>1.3 \pi$ ($1.3,~1.6,~1.9 \pi$), while the number of flares between phase $0 \pi$ and $0.5 \pi$ shows a slightly increasing trend in the number of flares. We see a larger dip right before and after the big peak at phase $1 \pi$ which was also visible in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins} (10 bins). The major dips at phase $0.7 \pi$, $1.3 \pi$, $1.6 \pi$ and $1.9 \pi$ are significant (1 $\sigma$), while the smaller ones between phase $0 \pi$ and $1 \pi$ are within errors. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -133,13 +133,13 @@ Looking at the same dataset with 30 bins for the histogram (figure \ref{fig:K-Fl \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histogram showing the amount of flares per phase of 37 K dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histogram showing the number of flares per phase of 37 K dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:K-Flarecount} \end{figure} -The histograms with limited normalized flare peaks to >1.05 is shown in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.5_peak}. In \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak} the histogram with 10 bins is shown, while figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the histogram with 30 bins. -There are multiple clear peaks visible in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak}. The two highest being at phases $0.7 \pi$ as well as $1.1 \pi$, with the latter being wider having a decline till the phase maximum is reached. These two peaks are seperated by a bin at phase $0.9 \pi$ which is significantly lower (roughly twice the errorbar size). Additionally there appears a peak just slightly smaller than the other two in the first bin (at phase maximum).\\ -A similar picture forms when increasing the bin count to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}). The main differences to 10 bins is though that the heights of the afformentioned peaks is now the same, and that the errorbars started to overlap with the surrounding bins. Additionally a new peak in the last bin, during the phase maximum, appeared having the same height as the other three. +The histograms with normalized flare peaks limited to >1.05 are shown in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.5_peak}. In \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak} the histogram with 10 bins is shown, while figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the histogram with 30 bins. +There are multiple significant peaks visible in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak}. The two highest being at phases $0.7 \pi$ as well as $1.1 \pi$. From phase $>1.1 \pi$ we see a decrease in the number of flares. These two peaks are seperated by a bin at phase $0.9 \pi$ which is significantly lower (roughly twice the error). Moreover, we also see a peak at phase $0 \pi$ which is slightly smaller than the other two at $0.7$ and $1.1 \pi$.\\ +A similar picture forms when increasing the resolution to 30 bins (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}). The main differences to figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak} is though that the heights of the afformentioned peaks is now the same, and that the errorbars are ofcourse larger than for the 10 bin representation. Additionally a new peak in the last bin, during the phase maximum, appeared having the same height as the other three peaks. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -155,14 +155,13 @@ A similar picture forms when increasing the bin count to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-F \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.05 per phase of 13 K dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.05 per phase of 13 K dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.5_peak} \end{figure} -Similarly to what has been done to the histograms in section \ref{sec:results:m_dwarfs}, figures \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak} and \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak} limit the data used to plot the histograms to flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.01 and 1.05 respectively. -In figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}, which limited the flare peaks to a maximum of 1.01, there appears a siginificantly large peak at around phase $1.2 \pi$ which is at the phase minimum. Another, slightly smaller peak appears at the phase maximum at $1.9 \pi$. Both of these peaks are, including error, higher than the average flare count. Checking for more specific phases for the peaks, by increasing the bin count to 30, shows an overall decrease win flares at the phase maximum at around phase $0/2 \pi$, but shows siginificant peaks at phases $1.6 \pi$ and $1.9 \pi$. These two bins are now larger than the one(s) at around phase $1 \pi$ to $1.2 \pi$.\\ -Increasing the allowed flare peaks to 1.05 in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} shows a similar pattern to what happened in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} with the data for M dwarfs. The resulting histogram look very similar to the ones using all available flare data for K dwarfs (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount}). The differences of figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}, which shows the histogram with 10 bins with flare peaks limited to <1.05, and \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins}, which shows the histogram with 10 bins for all detected flares of K dwarfs, is that that the two bins at around phase $1.3 \pi$ to $1.5 \pi$ are now more prominant, even though still not outside of the error of their surrounding bins. Similarly the last bin at around phase $1.9 \pi$ is more prominant.\\ -Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) shows a very similar figure to as figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins} with 30 bins without any limits to flare peaks. There only very slight differences in the relative bin height. +Similar to figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak} and \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}, we also show the histograms of flares with a normalized peak threshold of 1.01 and 1.05. In figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}, where we show the histogram of flares with a peak <1.01, there appears a siginificantly large peak at around phase $1.2 \pi$ which is at the phase minimum. Another, slightly smaller peak appears at the phase maximum at $1.9 \pi$. Both of these peaks are significant when comparing them to their surrounding bins. Checking for more specific phases for the peaks, by increasing the resolution to 30 bins, shows siginificant peaks at phases $1.6 \pi$ and $1.9 \pi$. These two bins stand out with respect to their neighbouring bins.\\ +Increasing the maximum flare peak threshold to 1.05 in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} reveals a similar pattern as shown in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} with the data for M dwarfs. The histogram is similar to the ones using all available flare data for K dwarfs (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount}). The differences of figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}, which shows the histogram with 10 bins with flare peaks limited to <1.05, and \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins}, which shows the histogram with 10 bins for all detected flares of K dwarfs, is that that the two bins at around phase $0.3 \pi$ to $0.5 \pi$ are now more pronounced, even though still not outside of the error of their surrounding bins. Similarly the last bin at around phase $1.9 \pi$ is more pronounced.\\ +Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) shows a very similar figure compared to figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -178,7 +177,7 @@ Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) s \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.01 per phase of 20 K dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.01 per phase of 20 K dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak} \end{figure} @@ -198,7 +197,7 @@ Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) s \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 20 K dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 20 K dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} \end{figure} @@ -206,9 +205,9 @@ Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) s \section{G dwarfs \label{sec:results:g_dwarfs}} This section shows the results for 21 G dwarfs for which flares could be detected. Table \ref{apA:list_of_g_stars} contains a list of all G type stars used.\\ -The first histogram over all data of G type dwarfs with 10 bins in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows a significant increase of occuring flares well outside the errorbar range in the lightcurve minima at around phase $1 \pi$ compared to the maxima at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$. The rise in flare occurances from maxima to minima (phase $0 \pi$ to $1 \pi$) seems to be gradual, while there is a steep fall off after the sixth bin at phase $1.1 \pi$.\\ -Due to the lower number of detected flares on G type stars, the error bars in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins} are rather large. The increase of flares in the minima of the folded lightcurve from the previous figure is now splint into two peaks at phase $0.6 \pi$ and $1 \pi$. An additional peak bin appears at around phase $0.25 \pi$ in this figure. This peaks errorbar does not overlap with its surrounding bins errorbars. Right before this peak is a significant dip visible at phase $0.2 \pi$. On the other half of the phase after the peak at phase $1 \pi$, the near even distribution of figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins} becomes more noisy, even though its still well within error.\\ -Limiting the flare peaks to <1.05 (figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}) does not change the resulting histograms much. There are only miniscule differences, mainly the bin at phase $1.1 \pi$ is now slightly smaller relative to the two prior bins in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak} compared to figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins} with all flares. +The first histogram of all data of G type dwarfs with 10 bins in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows a significant increase of occuring flares around phase $1 \pi$ compared to ones at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$. The rise in flare number from phase $0 \pi$ to $1.3 \pi$ is gradual, while there is a steep fall off after the sixth bin at phase $1.1 \pi$.\\ +Due to the lower number of detected flares on G type stars, the error bars in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins} are rather large. The maximum of the histogram shown in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins} is now split into two peaks at phase $0.6 \pi$ and $1 \pi$. An additional peak appears at phase $0.3 \pi$ in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins}. This peak is significant with respect ti uts neighbouring bins. Right before this peak a significant dip is visible at phase $0.2 \pi$. From phase $1$ to $2 \pi$ we do not see any significant pattern.\\ +Limiting the flare peaks to <1.05 (figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}) does not significantly affect the histograms. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -224,12 +223,12 @@ Limiting the flare peaks to <1.05 (figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpe \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histogram showing the amount of flares per phase of 21 G dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histogram showing the number of flares per phase of 21 G dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:G-Flarecount} \end{figure} -Looking only at flares >1.05 on the other side significantly changes how the histograms looks like. Figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the histogram with 10 bins, while figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the one with 30 bins. The histogram with 10 bins shows 3 significant peaks. The first at around phase $0.5 \pi$ with a width of 3 bins, the second at around $1.1 \pi$ and the last at around $1.7 \pi$. All of these peaks are well above their surrounding bins including errors.\\ -Increasing the bins to 30, which is seen in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}, does not give such a clear picture. Due to the overall lower total number of flares due to the limit, and the increased bin count, all errorbars are overlapping. Even though there are still singular bins at $0.4 \pi$, $1.1 \pi$ and $1.7 \pi$ which are higher than their surroundings, but not outside the error range anymore. +On the other side, looking at flares with peaks >1.05 reveals completely different histograms. Figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the histogram with 10 bins, while figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the one with 30 bins. The histogram with 10 bins shows 3 significant peaks. The first at around phase $0.5 \pi$ with a width of 3 bins, the second at around $1.1 \pi$ and the last at around $1.7 \pi$. All of these peaks lie significantly above their surrounding bins.\\ +Increasing the bins to 30, which is seen in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}, does not give a clear picture, due to the overall lower total number of flares due to the limit, and the increased bin count. Even though there are still singular bins at $0.4 \pi$, $1.1 \pi$ and $1.7 \pi$ which are larger than their surrounding, but well within the error range. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -245,7 +244,7 @@ Increasing the bins to 30, which is seen in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 16 G dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 16 G dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:G-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} \end{figure} @@ -263,15 +262,15 @@ Increasing the bins to 30, which is seen in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.05 per phase of 13 G dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.05 per phase of 13 G dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:G-Flarecount-peaks_1.5_peak} \end{figure} \FloatBarrier \section{F dwarfs \label{sec:results:f_dwarfs}} -This section shows the results for 4 F dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The list of F type stars can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_f_stars}.\\ -Due to the low number of F type stars in this study, and the difficulty to detect flares on them, the detected number of flares in figures \ref{fig:F-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:F-Flarecount-30_Bins} is very low which causes the errorbars of the histogram to grow very large. Nontheless all detected flares were around the minimum of the lightcurves. +This section shows the results for four F dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The list of F type stars can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_f_stars}.\\ +The detected number of flares in the already low number of F type stars in this study in figures \ref{fig:F-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:F-Flarecount-30_Bins} is very low which causes large errorbars of the histogram. Nontheless all detected flares were around the minimum of the phasefolded lightcurves. However, due to the above mentioned large errorbars, the results of F-type main-sequence stars is not significant. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -287,46 +286,82 @@ Due to the low number of F type stars in this study, and the difficulty to detec \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:F-Flarecount-30_Bins} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histogram showing the amount of flares per phase of 4 F dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:F-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:F-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \caption{Histogram showing the number of flares per phase of 4 F dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:F-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:F-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} \label{fig:F-Flarecount} \end{figure} \FloatBarrier \section{Combined results \label{sec:results:combined}} -The results for all 95 stars in the study for which flares could be detected. This includes the stars from tables \ref{apA:list_of_m_stars} to \ref{apA:list_of_f_stars}. The histograms in figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins} are stacked histograms. The flare amount of the individual stars are per bin are stacked on top of each other resulting in the final value.\\ -The dip at phase $0.5 \pi$ which was present in the histogram for the M type stars (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins} in section \ref{sec:results:m_dwarfs}) propagates and casues the dip to be also visible in figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins}. The peak at phase $1 \pi$ is also a result of propagation, but from the K and G type star data. Due to the large number of overall flares, the errorbars are small and the errorbars of the peak in the center at phase $1 \pi$ does not overlap with the other errorbars.\\ -Looking at the same data with 30 bins over the phase in figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins}, the propagation of the variation in the data of the M type stars is clearly visible with the dip around phase $0.5 \pi$ and $1.4 \pi$. Additionally the peaks from the data of K (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}) and G (figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins}) type stars cause a wider peak at around phase $1 \pi$. Additionally there are also smaller, especially less wide peaks at around phases $0.4 \pi$, $0.7 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$. +The results combined for all 95 stars in the study for which flares could be detected is presented in this section. This includes the stars from tables \ref{apA:list_of_m_stars} to \ref{apA:list_of_f_stars}. The histograms in figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins} are stacked histograms. The flare number of the individual stars per bin are stacked on top of each other resulting in a total flare number histogram. Each color (red for M, orange for K, yellow for G and green for F type stars) represents the number of flares counted in the bin by the respective spectral type. For easier comparison, the histograms shown in the previous sections for M, K and G stars are shown again in figures \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_M} to \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_G}.\\ +The dip at phase $0.5 \pi$ which was present in the histogram for the M type stars (see figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_M}) dominates the total flarenumber histogram. From figures \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_K}/\ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_K} and \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_G}/\ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_G} one can see that no local minimum at phase $0.5 \pi$ exists. The peak at phase $1 \pi$ is also a result of propagation but from the K and G type star data. Due to the large number of overall flares, the errorbars are small and of the peak in the center at phase $1 \pi$ is significant.\\ +Looking at the same data with 30 bins over the phase in figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins}, the propagation of the variation in the data of the M type stars is clearly visible with the dip around phase $0.5 \pi$ and $1.4 \pi$. Additionally the peaks from the data of K (figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_K}) and G (figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_G}) type stars cause a wider peak at around phase $1 \pi$. Additionally there are also smaller, especially less wide peaks at around phases $0.4 \pi$, $0.7 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering - \begin{subfigure}[b]{.49\textwidth} + \begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth} \centering \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins.png} - \caption{10 bins} + \caption{M, K, G and F type stars, 10 bins} \label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins} \end{subfigure} - \begin{subfigure}[b]{.49\textwidth} + \begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth} \centering \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins.png} - \caption{30 bins} + \caption{M, K, G and F type stars, 30 bins} \label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares per phase for all 95 dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The colors show the individual amount for each spectral type with the amount being stacked ontop of each other. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.} + \begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/M/M-Flarecount-10_Bins.png} + \caption{M type stars, 10 bins} + \label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_M} + \end{subfigure} + \begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/M/M-Flarecount-30_Bins.png} + \caption{M type stars, 30 bins} + \label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_M} + \end{subfigure} + \begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/K/K-Flarecount-10_Bins.png} + \caption{K type stars, 10 bins} + \label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_K} + \end{subfigure} + \begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/K/K-Flarecount-30_Bins.png} + \caption{K type stars, 30 bins} + \label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_K} + \end{subfigure} + \begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/G/G-Flarecount-10_Bins.png} + \caption{G type stars, 10 bins} + \label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_G} + \end{subfigure} + \begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/G/G-Flarecount-30_Bins.png} + \caption{G type stars, 30 bins} + \label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_G} + \end{subfigure} + \caption{Histograms showing the number of flares per phase for all 95 dwarfs for which flares could be detected in panel \subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins}. Panel \subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_M} to \subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_G} show the histograms for spectral types M, K and G respectively as direct comparison. Otherwise same as previous figures.} \label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount} \end{figure} \FloatBarrier \section{Individual stars \label{sec:results:individual}} -This section contains a selection of results for individual stars. The results for this section were selected because either they match what this study was looking for or because the opposite is the case or were in some other way interesting. +This section contains a selection of results for individual stars. The results for this section were selected because either they represent the expected case of more flares on the more spotted hemisphere of the star but also the way round, i.e. less flares on the more spotted hemisphere. \subsection{BD-08 995} -BD-08 995, also known by TIC 43472154, is a G type star with a surface temperature of 5316 K (\cite{revised_tess_input_catalogue}), which is \textasciitilde87 pc away (\cite{simbad}). It is a very active solar like star, producing over 200 superflares per year (\cite{tess_1st_year_superflares}). It has a rotational period of 2.8 days (\cite{tess_1st_year_superflares}). There are two TESS lightcurves available, sectors 5 and 32.\\ -Looking at figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-10_Bins}, which shows the flare distribution across the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves with 10 bins, it shows a clear peak of flares appearance in the lightcurve minima at phase $1 \pi$. The errorbars of this wide peak only overlap with the first bin of the plot at phase $0 \pi$. -This bin belong to the phase maxima which also shows slight increase in flare activity at phase $0/2 \pi$ compared to the transition regions at around phase $0.5 \pi$ (maxima to minima) and $1.5 \pi$ (minima to maxima). Considering errors for this, the errorbars of the bins at the phase maxima overlap with those of the transition regions.\\ -Figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-30_Bins} shows the same data just with 30 bins instead of 10. Ignoring the errorbars, it shows a similar picture as the previous figure. But due to the low number of total detected flares, and a the relatively large bin count, the errorbars become large compared to the individual bins. Due to this, the errorbars of most bins overlap with each other, with the exceptions of the the first bin at phase $0 \pi$ and the bin at phase \textasciitilde$1.1 \pi$, whichs erorbars only overlap with other higher bins like the ones at phase \textasciitilde$0.9 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.4 \pi$. +BD-08 995, also known as TIC 43472154, is a G type main-sequence star with a surface temperature of 5316 K (\cite{revised_tess_input_catalogue}), and a distance of \textasciitilde87 pc (\cite{simbad}). It is a very active solar like star, producing over 200 superflares per year (\cite{tess_1st_year_superflares}). It has a rotational period of 2.8 days (\cite{tess_1st_year_superflares}). There are two TESS lightcurves available in sectors 5 and 32.\\ +Looking at figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-10_Bins}, which shows the flare distribution across the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves with 10 bins, one can see a clear peak at phase $1 \pi$. The bins forming the peak are significantly enhanced with respect to the neighbouring bins. +The bins of the phase maxima also show a slight increase in flare activity at phase $0/2 \pi$ compared to the transition regions at around phase $0.5 \pi$ (maxima to minima) and $1.5 \pi$ (minima to maxima). The peaks at the phase maxima are not as significant as the peaks in phase minimum.\\ +Figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-30_Bins} shows the same data just with 30 bins instead of 10, but less significant. It shows a similar picture as the previous figure. But due to the low number of total detected flares, and a the relatively large bin count, the errorbars become large compared to the individual bins. Due to this, the errorbars of most bins overlap with each other, with the exceptions of the the first bin at phase $0 \pi$ and the bin at phase \textasciitilde$1.1 \pi$, whichs erorbars only overlap with other larger bins like the ones at phase \textasciitilde$0.9 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.4 \pi$. \begin{figure}[pt!] @@ -347,7 +382,7 @@ Figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-30_Bins} shows the same data just with 30 b \label{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount} \end{figure} -The distribution of normalized flare peaks for BD-08 995 in figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-flarepeaks_1.2} shows that the highest flare peak appeared at around phase $0.1 \pi$ with a peak of \textasciitilde1.11. Other high flare peaks were detected at phases \textasciitilde$1 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.9 \pi$. Furthermore the flares around phase $1 \pi$ seem to have higher average peak. +The distribution of normalized flare peaks for BD-08 995 in figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-flarepeaks_1.2} shows that the highest flare peak appeared at around phase $0.1 \pi$ with a peak of \textasciitilde1.11. Other high flare peaks were detected at phases \textasciitilde$1 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.9 \pi$. \begin{figure}[pt!] \includegraphics[width=.95\textwidth]{plots/sine/BD-08_995/BD-08\space\space\space995-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.2.png} @@ -371,7 +406,7 @@ Looking at the folded TESS lightcurves of sector 5 (\ref{fig:BD-08_995-TESS5_fol \caption{TESS Sector 32} \label{fig:BD-08_995-TESS32_foldedLC} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Folded lightcurves for BD-08 995. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.} + \caption{Folded lightcurves for BD-08 995. The blue lines show the calculated sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.} \label{fig:BD-08_995-TESS_foldedLCs} \end{figure} @@ -379,8 +414,8 @@ Looking at the folded TESS lightcurves of sector 5 (\ref{fig:BD-08_995-TESS5_fol \subsection{TYC 1360-957-1} Not much is published about TYC 1360-957-1. It has been categorized as spectral type K on SIMBAD (\cite{simbad}). It has the TESS Input Catalogue number 247117382, and has been observed by TESS in sectors 44, 45 and 46.\\ -Looking at the flare distribution histogram with 10 bins for this star in figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-10_Bins} one can see that the highest peaks in order are at phase \textasciitilde$0.7 \pi$, \textasciitilde$0.4 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.2 \pi$. The last one being two bins wide. The first two are, including error, above their surrounding bins, while for the third peak, the second peaks errorbar overlaps with those of the smaller bins. -Looking at the histogram with 30 bins of the same dataset (figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the first 2 peaks mentioned for the histogram with 10 bins are still visible. But compared to the privious figure, the low number of flares result in a rather large error. This causes the errorbars of the two mentioned bin peaks to overlap with the surrounding bins which could be estimated to be the average. +Looking at the flare distribution histogram with 10 bins for this star in figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-10_Bins} one can see that the largest peaks in order are at phase \textasciitilde$0.7 \pi$, \textasciitilde$0.4 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.2 \pi$. The last one being two bins wide. The first two are significant with respect to their neighboring bins and errors, while the third peak is only partly significant. +Looking at the histogram with 30 bins of the same dataset (figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the first 2 peaks mentioned for the histogram with 10 bins are still pronounced. But compared to figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-10_Bins}, the low number of flares and the large number of bins result in a rather large error. Therefore these two peaks are not significant as those are within the error of the histogram. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -396,11 +431,11 @@ Looking at the histogram with 30 bins of the same dataset (figure \ref{fig:TYC_1 \caption{30 bins} \label{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-30_Bins} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Histograms of TYC 1360-957-1 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.} + \caption{Histograms of TYC 1360-957-1 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bars show the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.} \label{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount} \end{figure} -Figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-flarepeaks_1.31} presents the overall distribution on the normalized phase detected for TYC 1360-957-1 in this study. The three highest flare peaks detected were at a normalized phase of \textasciitilde$0.8 \pi$, which is very close to the phase minimum at $1 \pi$. Three more higher flare peaks stand out at phase $1.2 \pi$. While they are not as high as the previous three, they have a higher peak than the rest of the detected flares. +Figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-flarepeaks_1.31} presents the overall distribution of the normalized phase detected for TYC 1360-957-1 in this study. The three largest flare peaks detected were at a normalized phase of \textasciitilde$0.8 \pi$, which is close to the phase minimum at $1 \pi$. Three more larger flare peaks stand out at phase $1.2 \pi$. While they are not as large as the previous three, they have a higher peak than the rest of the detected flares. \begin{figure}[pt!] \includegraphics[width=.95\textwidth]{plots/sine/TYC_1360-957-1/TYC 1360-957-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.3130771478482715.png} @@ -408,8 +443,8 @@ Figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-flarepeaks_1.31} presents the overall distributio \label{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-flarepeaks_1.31} \end{figure} -The used folded lightcurves used can be seen in figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs}. This figure is split into the three different TESS sectors. In \subref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS44_foldedLC} sector 44 is visible. The lowest point of the folded lightcurve is slightly shifted from the center, which represents the lowest point of the sine fit. One can also see that two large flares happened at this point. -No such large flares can be seen in \subref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS45_foldedLC}, unlike in \subref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS46_foldedLC} which shows a large flare again. +The used folded lightcurves can be seen in figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs}. This figure is split into the three different TESS sectors. In the upper left panel of \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs} sector 44 is visible. The minimum of the folded lightcurve is slightly shifted from the center. This is represented by the lowest point of the sine fit. One can also see that two large flares occured at the minimum of the phasefolded lightcurve. +No such large flares can be seen in sector 45 (upper right panel of figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs}). Again in sector 46 (lower panel of figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs}) we see a large flare at the minimum of the phasefolded lightcurve. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -438,9 +473,9 @@ No such large flares can be seen in \subref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS45_foldedLC}, \FloatBarrier \subsection{TYC 4595-107-1} -TYC 4595-107-1, also known as TIC 394030788, is a G type star with an effective temperature of 5231 K, a radius of 0.9 $R_\odot$ (\cite{tess_2nd_year_superflares}, \cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}), mass of 0.89 $M_\odot$ (\cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}) and a rotational period of 3.3 days (\cite{tess_2nd_year_superflares}, \cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}) and was observed in 20 TESS sectors. The folded lightcurves for TYC 4595-107-1 can be found in appendix \ref{apB:TYC_4595-107-1}.\\ -The first histogram, figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-10_Bins}, with 10 bins shows the accumulated data for all 20 observed lightcurves. Due to the high number of available lightcurves, and TYC 4595-107-1 being a very active star (\cite{tess_2nd_year_superflares}, \cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}), the total flare count is very high. There seems to be a base level of flares per bin of around 30 over the phase, with a large and two bin wide peak at around phase $0.6 to 0.8 \pi$. This increase in flares is high enough to be outside of the error of the base amount of flares. Another peak, even though less certain as its errorbar overlaps with the surrounding bins, appears at the bin at phase $1.9 \pi$. A similar increase in flares can be seen at the bin at $0.2 \pi$.\\ -The histogram with 30 bins (figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}) shows a similar result. It shows a large increase in flares around phase $0.6 to 1 \pi$, as well at at $1.9 to 0.1 \pi$ and $0.4 \pi$. Only the first mentioned peak managed to be large enough though, to not have overlapping errors with the surrounding lower count bins. +TYC 4595-107-1, also known as TIC 394030788, is an active G-type main-sequence star with an effective temperature of 5231 K, a radius of 0.9 $R_\odot$ (\cite{tess_2nd_year_superflares}, \cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}), mass of 0.89 $M_\odot$ (\cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}) and a rotational period of 3.3 days (\cite{tess_2nd_year_superflares}, \cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}) and was observed in 20 TESS sectors. The folded lightcurves for TYC 4595-107-1 can be found in appendix \ref{apB:TYC_4595-107-1}.\\ +The first histogram, figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-10_Bins}, with 10 bins shows the accumulated data for all 20 observed lightcurves. Due to the high number of available lightcurves, and TYC 4595-107-1 being a very active star (\cite{tess_2nd_year_superflares}, \cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}), the total flare count is very high. There seems to be a base level of flares per bin of around 30 over the phase, with a large and two bin wide peak at around phase $0.6$ to $0.8 \pi$. This increase in flare number is sufficiently large to be outside of the error of the average distribution. Another peak, even though less significant as its errorbar overlaps with the surrounding bins, appears at the bin at phase $1.9 \pi$. A similar, but a bit weaker increase in flares can be seen at the bin at $0.2 \pi$.\\ +The histogram with 30 bins (figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}) shows a similar result. It shows an increase in flare number around phase $0.6$ to $1 \pi$, as well as at $1.9$ to $0.1 \pi$ and $0.4 \pi$. Only the first mentioned peak managed to be large enough though, to be significantly above the error of the average distribution. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -460,11 +495,11 @@ The histogram with 30 bins (figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}) \label{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount} \end{figure} -The flare peak at normalized phase distribution can be seen in figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-flarepeaks_1.27}. The strongest flare was detected at normalized phase \textasciitilde$0.8 \pi$. Two sligthly higher flare peaks have been detected at phases $0.5 \pi$ and $2 \pi$ respectively, but otherwise there does not seem to be any pattern.\\ +The flare peak of the normalized phase distribution can be seen in figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-flarepeaks_1.27}. The strongest flare was detected at normalized phase \textasciitilde$0.8 \pi$. Also, pronounced flare peaks have been detected at phases $0.5 \pi$ and $2 \pi$ respectively. Apart from that we do not see any other energetic flares. The majority of flares reveal flare peaks in the range of 1.01 to 1.05.\\ All of the folded lightcurves of TYC 4595-107-1 can be found in appendix \ref{apB:TYC_4595-107-1}, figures \ref{apB:fig:TYC_4595-107-1-TESS_foldedLC1} and \ref{apB:fig:TYC_4595-107-1-TESS_foldedLC2}. \begin{figure}[pt!] - \includegraphics[width=.95\textwidth]{plots/sine/TYC_4595-107-1/TYC 4595-107-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.2782052782832685.png} + \includegraphics[width=.95\textwidth]{plots/sine/TYC_4595-107-1/TYC 4595-107-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.5.png} \caption{Distribution of flare peaks in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured for TYC 1360-957-1. Y-Axis shows the flare peak and is limited to the value of the highest peak detected. The x-axis shows the normalized phase.} \label{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-flarepeaks_1.27} \end{figure} @@ -473,12 +508,12 @@ All of the folded lightcurves of TYC 4595-107-1 can be found in appendix \ref{ap \subsection{V* V471 Tau} \label{results:v471_tau} -V471 Tau is a post-common envelope binary system consiting of a K2 type dwarf and a white dwarf (\cite{v471tau_revised}). The K2 dwarf has a always present dominant spot, which faces the white dwarf (\cite{V471tau_magnetic_activity}). -Figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins} show the histograms of 5 TESS folded lightcurves for V471 Tau with 10 and 30 bins respectively. The TESS lightcurves used are of sectors 42, 43, 44, 70 and 71. The lightcurve of K2 target table ID 80 was rejected by the algorithm. Due to the lightcurve spanning 90 days, and the variability in spots, the folding and fitting algorithm could not produce a reliable output. +V471 Tau is a post-common envelope binary system consiting of a K2 and a white dwarf (\cite{v471tau_revised}). The K2 dwarf has a dominant spot all the time as the system shows a bound rotation, which faces the white dwarf (\cite{V471tau_magnetic_activity}). +Figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins} show the histograms of 5 TESS folded lightcurves for V471 Tau with 10 and 30 bins respectively. The TESS lightcurves used are from sectors 42, 43, 44, 70 and 71. The lightcurve of K2 target table ID 80 was rejected by the algorithm described in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction}. Due to the lightcurve spanning 90 days, and the variability due to spots, the folding and fitting algorithm could not produce a reliable output. The blue lines show the used fits for the individual folded lightcurves. -In the first figure, there appear two different peaks. The first being at phase $0.5 \pi$, and the second one at phase $1.1 \pi$. These bins are significantly higher than the surrounding bins with 13/15 flares respectively compared to 1 to 8 on the other bins.\\ -As seen in figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS42_foldedLC}, \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS43_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS44_foldedLC} the transit of the white dwarf occurs at around phase 0 (in these figures) which translates to phase $1 \pi$ in the normalized phase.\\ -Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins}) does not change the result much. Due to the individual flare count being lower per bin compared to the previous figure, the errorbars increase in size comparatively. There are still peaks at around $0.5 \pi$ and $1 \pi$. +In the first figure, there appear two different peaks. The first being at phase $0.5 \pi$, and the second one at phase $1.1 \pi$. These bins are significantly higher than the remaining bins with 13/15 flares respectively compared to 1 to 8 in the other bins.\\ +Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins}) does not change the result much. Due to the individual flare count being lower per bin compared to figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-10_Bins}, the errorbars are comparatively larger. There are still peaks at \textasciitilde$0.5 \pi$ and $1 \pi$.\\ +As seen in figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS42_foldedLC}, \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS43_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS44_foldedLC} the transit of the white dwarf (dip in the lightcurves) occurs around phase 0 (in these figures) which translates to phase $1 \pi$ in the normalized phase. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -498,7 +533,7 @@ Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins}) does not \label{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount} \end{figure} -Looking at the folded lightcurves for this star (see figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS42_foldedLC}, \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS43_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS44_foldedLC}), the transit of the white dwarf (sudden dip in the folded lightcurve) is clearly visible, and always happens around phase 0. Additional folded lightcurves can be seen in appendix \ref{apB:V471_tau}, figure \ref{apB:fig:V471Tau-TESS_foldedLC} like the ones which were folded by the rotational period for when a spot modulation was detected. +Looking at the folded lightcurves for this star (see figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS42_foldedLC}, \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS43_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS44_foldedLC}), the transit of the white dwarf (sudden dip in the folded lightcurve) is clearly visible, and occurs happens around phase 0. Additionally lightcurves folded by the rotational period for the sectors which have a spot modulation period different from the rotational period can be seen in figure \ref{apB:fig:V471Tau-TESS_foldedLC} from appendix \ref{apB:V471_tau}. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -520,29 +555,29 @@ Looking at the folded lightcurves for this star (see figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-TE \caption{TESS Sector 44} \label{fig:V471Tau-TESS44_foldedLC} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Folded lightcurves for V* V471 Tau. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.} + \caption{Folded lightcurves for V* V471 Tau. The blue lines show the calculated sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.} \label{fig:V471Tau-TESS_foldedLCs} \end{figure} -Figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-flarepeaks_1.053} shows the normalized phase and peak of each flare in the data during which part of the phase it happened. It shows that the largest flares happened at around phase $0.5 \pi$, $1 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$. The phase in which the white dwarf transit happens is at around phase $1 \pi$. +In figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-flarepeaks_1.1} the flare peak of the normalized phase distribution can be seen. It reveals that the largest flares occured around phase $0.5 \pi$, $1 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$. The phase in which the white dwarf transit occurs is around phase $1 \pi$. \begin{figure}[pt!] - \includegraphics[width=.95\textwidth]{plots/sine/V471Tau/V_star_ V471 Tau-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.0539907609848342.png} + \includegraphics[width=.95\textwidth]{plots/sine/V471Tau/V_star_ V471 Tau-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.1.png} \caption{Distribution of flare peaks in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured. Y-Axis shows the flare peak and is limited to the value of the highest peak detected. The x-axis shows the normalized phase.} - \label{fig:V471Tau-flarepeaks_1.053} + \label{fig:V471Tau-flarepeaks_1.1} \end{figure} \FloatBarrier \subsection{V* HK Aqr} \label{results:hk_aqr} -HK Aqr is a M dwarf with a mass of 0.57 $M_\odot$, a radius of 0.53 $R_\odot$ and is around 22.3 pc away from our solar system. Its effective temperature is aroun 3800 K (\cite{conch_shell_m_dwarfs}). It was observed in four TESS sectors. -HK Aqr is mentioned here, as it is a star, for which the optimize fold algorithm partially broke. This happened for its lightcurves for the sectors 29 and 42. The algorithm found for both periodograms a second signal for a possible period. This resulted in the folded lightcurves seen in figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS42_foldedLC}. Figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins} were created with this dataset.\\ -In figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} one can see an increase in flares at around phase $1.3 \pi$. This peak is high enough to be outside the error range of the lower flare count bins between phase $0 to 1 \pi$. Figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins} paints a similar picture. Additionally it shows a peak at phase $0 \pi$ though, which is during the phase maximum, as well as one at around phase $1.6 \pi$ which is in the transition from minima to maxima.\\ -Figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} show the historgrams for the data of the two folded TESS lightcurves of sectors 29 and 42 which were flagged as period folded with 10 and 30 bins respectively. The folded lightcurves can be found in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS_foldedLCs_Period}. -In figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} the overall flare distribution seems to be relatively high from phase $0.2 \pi$ to $1.4 \pi$, with a peak at phase $1.2 \pi$. The amount of detected flares during the maximum of the lightcurves at phase $1.8$ to $0.2 \pi$ is low compared to that. Even including the errorbars it cannot reach the previous bins. An additional dip of the same flare count can be seen at phase $1.5 \pi$. -The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} is very low. Due to this all errorbars overlap. Nontheless there are two bins which stand out at phases \textasciitilde$0.4 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.25 \pi$ which would be in the transition from maxima to minima, and shortly after the minima respectively. +HK Aqr is an M dwarf with a mass of 0.57 $M_\odot$, a radius of 0.53 $R_\odot$ and a distance of 22.3 pc. Its effective temperature is 3800 K (\cite{conch_shell_m_dwarfs}). It was observed in four TESS sectors. +For the analysis of HK Aqr the optimize fold algorithm partially broke. This happened for its lightcurves for TESS sectors 29 and 42. The algorithm found for both periodograms a second signal for a possible period. This resulted in the folded lightcurves seen in figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS42_foldedLC}. Figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins} were created with this dataset.\\ +In figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} one can see an increase in flare number at phase $1.3 \pi$. This peak is sufficiently large to be outside the error range of the lower flare count bins between phase $0$ to $1 \pi$. Figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins} shows a similar picture. Additionally it shows a peak at phase $0 \pi$ though, which means during the phase maximum, as well as one around phase $1.6 \pi$ which is in the transition from minimum to maximum.\\ +Figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} show the histograms for the data of the two folded TESS lightcurves of sectors 29 and 42 which were flagged as period folded with 10 and 30 bins respectively. The folded lightcurves can be found in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS_foldedLCs_Period}. +In figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} the overall flare distribution seems to be relatively high from phase $0.2 \pi$ to $1.4 \pi$, with a peak at phase $1.2 \pi$. The number of detected flares during the maximum of the lightcurves at phase $1.8$ to $0.2 \pi$ is low compared to that. An additional dip of the same flare count can be seen at phase $1.5 \pi$. +The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} together with larger number of bins results in large errors. Nontheless there are two bins which stand out at phases \textasciitilde$0.4 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.25 \pi$ which would be in the transition from maximum to minimum, and shortly after the minimum respectively. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -593,7 +628,7 @@ The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} is very low. \caption{TESS Sector 69} \label{fig:HKAqr-TESS69_foldedLC} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Folded lightcurves for V* HK Aqr. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.} + \caption{Folded lightcurves for V* HK Aqr. The blue lines show the calculated sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.} \label{fig:HKAqr-TESS_foldedLCs2} \end{figure} @@ -629,7 +664,7 @@ The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} is very low. \caption{TESS Sector 42} \label{fig:HKAqr-TESS42_foldedLC_Period} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Folded lightcurves for V* HK Aqr. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.} + \caption{Folded lightcurves for V* HK Aqr. The blue lines show the calculated sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.} \label{fig:HKAqr-TESS_foldedLCs_Period} \end{figure} @@ -637,10 +672,9 @@ The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} is very low. \subsection{KOI-256} \label{results:koi_256} -KOI-256 is, similarly to V471 Tau, a binary system consisting of a M dwarf and a white dwarf (\cite{eclipsing_binaries_koi_256}, \cite{koi_256_effects_of_magnetic}). It has a mass of 0.51 M$_\odot$, a radius of 0.540 R$_\odot$ and an effective temperature of 3450 K (\cite{eclipsing_binaries_koi_256}). Similarly to HK Aqr, a second periodicity was detected, which was the used to fold for spot modulation. This happened for Kepler target table ids 37, 38, 53 and TESS sector 80.\\ -Figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows the histogram with 10 bins for KOI-256 with all detected spot modulations, including the mentioned ones that were wrongfully detected. This figure shows a increase in flare count around phase $1 \pi$, which peaks at phases $0.7 \pi$ and around $1.4 \pi$. Additionally there appears a peak at phase $1.7 \pi$. -Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins}) shows clearer peaks at phase $0.7 \pi$ as well as $1.2 \pi$. Including errorbars, the mentioned peaks of both figures are above their surrounding bins. - +KOI-256 is, similarly to V471 Tau, a binary system consisting of an M dwarf and a white dwarf (\cite{eclipsing_binaries_koi_256}, \cite{koi_256_effects_of_magnetic}). It has a mass of 0.51 M$_\odot$, a radius of 0.540 R$_\odot$ and an effective temperature of 3450 K (\cite{eclipsing_binaries_koi_256}). Similarly to HK Aqr, a second periodicity was detected, which was used to fold for spot modulation. This happened for Kepler target table ids 37, 38, 53 and TESS sector 80.\\ +Figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows the histogram with 10 bins for KOI-256 with all detected spot modulations, including the mentioned ones that were wrongly detected. This figure shows an increase in flare count around phase $1 \pi$, which peaks at phases $0.7 \pi$ and a bit weaker around $1.4 \pi$. Additionally there appears a peak at phase $1.7 \pi$. +Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins}) shows more distinct peaks at phase $0.7 \pi$ as well as at $1.2 \pi$. The mentioned peaks of both figures are significantly above their surrounding bins. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -661,8 +695,8 @@ Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins}) shows cl \end{figure} Figures \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} and \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} show the histograms based on the, by the optimized fold algorithm determined, period folded lightcurves. Therefor only the period folded lightcurves from Kepler target table id 37, 38, 53 and TESS sector 80 were used. The folded lightcurves can be found in appendix \ref{apB:koi-256}, figures \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-Kepler_foldedLC} and \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-TESS_foldedLC}. -In figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period}, which shows a histogram with 10 bins for the flare distribution across the normalized phase, there is a clear increase of flares seen around the minima at phase $1 \pi$. The distribution nearly reminds one of a normal distribution, with the exception that the last two bins around phase $1.8 \pi$ to $2 \pi$ do not fall off as much as the first bin at phase $0 \pi$ does compared to the bins in the center.\\ -Looking at figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} which shows the same data, just with 30 bins, the peak at the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ is still present. Additionally there are three more peaks visible at around phases $0.3 \pi$, $1.4 \pi$ and $2 \pi$. These three peaks are only 1 bin wide and stand out far from their surrounding by around 1.5 times the errorbar. The peak in the center on the otherhand has gradual increases/descreases before and after, with the exception of the dip in the bin right before at around phase $0.9 \pi$. +In figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period}, which shows the histogram with 10 bins for the flare distribution across the normalized phase, there is a clear increase of flare number seen around the minimum at phase $1 \pi$. The distribution is nearly comparable to a normal distribution, except for the last two bis.\\ +Looking at figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} which shows the same data, just with 30 bins, the peak at the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ is still present. Additionally there are three more peaks visible around phases $0.3 \pi$, $1.4 \pi$, and $2 \pi$. These three peaks are only 1 bin wide and stand out far from their surrounding by around 1.5 times the errorbar. The peak in the center on the otherhand shows gradual increases/descreases before and after, with the exception of the dip in the bin right before at phase $0.9 \pi$. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -682,7 +716,7 @@ Looking at figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} which shows the sa \label{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount_Period} \end{figure} -Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phases of the two datasets in figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks} shows that the highest normalized flare peaks of up to 1.7 were detected in the lightcurves with proper period detection (folded lightcurves in appendix \ref{apB:koi-256}, figures \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-Kepler_periodfoldedLC} and \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-TESS_periodfoldedLC}). Comparing flare peaks which exist in both data sample, one can see that the highest peak of \subref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.3_period} at around phase $0.8 \pi$ and a normalized peak of \textasciitilde1.3 was moved to around phase $0.4 \pi$ in figure \subref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.7_spot} due to the additional found periodicity. +Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phases of the two datasets in figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks} shows that the highest normalized flare peaks of up to 1.7 were detected in the lightcurves with proper period detection (folded lightcurves in appendix \ref{apB:koi-256}, figures \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-Kepler_periodfoldedLC} and \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-TESS_periodfoldedLC}). Comparing flare peaks which exist in both data sample, one can see that the highest peak of \ref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.3_period} at around phase $0.8 \pi$ and a normalized peak of \textasciitilde1.3 was moved to phase $0.4 \pi$ in figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.7_spot} due to the additional detected periodicity. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -698,7 +732,7 @@ Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phas \caption{Period folded} \label{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.3_period} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Distribution of flare peaks for KOI-256 in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured. Y-Axis shows the flare peak and is limited to the value of the highest peak detected. The x-axis shows the normalized phase.} + \caption{Distributions of flare peaks for KOI-256 in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured. Y-Axis shows the flare peak and is limited to the value of the highest peak detected. The x-axis shows the normalized phase. Panel \subref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.7_spot} flare peak distribution on the normalized phase for the detected spot modulation. Panel \subref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.3_period} shows the flare distribution for the detected rotational periods.} \label{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks} \end{figure} @@ -706,7 +740,7 @@ Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phas \subsection{2MASS J19230963+3739397} \label{results:2MASS_J19230963p3739397} -2MASS J19230963+3739397, also known as KIC 2300039 or TIC 122672447, is a M dwarf around 213 pc away from our solar system (\cite{simbad}). It was observed in 3 Kepler target table IDs as well as 4 TESS sectors. The results for its flare distributions can be seen in figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount}. It was selected as an example as it shows quite the opposite of what was expected. As seen in the histogram with 10 bins (figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount-10_Bins}) it shows an increased flare occurance during the transition between phase minimum and maximum and during the maximum (phase $1.3 \pi$ to $2 \pi$). An additional significant peak is seen in the second bin. The flare count during the phase minimum at phase $1 \pi$ is at a minimum. Increasing the bin count to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount-30_Bins}) creates a similarly shaped histogram. The errorbars increase in size relatively though, and makes the individual less accurate. The folded lightcurves for the Kepler target table IDs 47, 48 and 49 can be seen in figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Kepler_foldedLCs}. There were no flares detected in the TESS lightcurves. As seen in the Kepler lightcurves, flare peaks as high as 1.5 have been detected, all around the phase maxima. +2MASS J19230963+3739397, also known as KIC 2300039 or TIC 122672447, is an M dwarf around 213 pc away from our solar system (\cite{simbad}). It was observed in 3 Kepler target table IDs as well as 4 TESS sectors. The results for its flare distributions can be seen in figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount}. It was selected as an example as it shows the opposite of what is expected. As seen in the histogram with 10 bins (figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount-10_Bins}) it shows an increased flare occurence during the transition between phase minimum and maximum and during the maximum (phase $1.3 \pi$ to $2 \pi$). An additional significant peak is seen in the second bin. The flare count during the phase minimum at phase $1 \pi$ is at a minimum. Increasing the bin count to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount-30_Bins}) creates a similarly shaped histogram. The errorbars are larger, and the distribution less significant. The folded lightcurves for the Kepler target table IDs 47, 48 and 49 can be seen in figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Kepler_foldedLCs}. There were no flares detected in the TESS lightcurves. As seen in the Kepler lightcurves, flare peaks as high as 1.5 have been detected, all around the phase maxima. \begin{figure}[pt!] \centering @@ -743,9 +777,9 @@ Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phas \begin{subfigure}[b]{.49\textwidth} \centering \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/2MASS J19230963+3739397/2MASS J19230963+3739397_Kepler-49-foldedLC-marked_fit_flares.png} - \caption{Kepler target table ID 48} - \label{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Kepler48_foldedLC} + \caption{Kepler target table ID 49} + \label{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Kepler49_foldedLC} \end{subfigure} - \caption{Folded lightcurves for 2MASS J19230963+3739397. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.} + \caption{Folded lightcurves for 2MASS J19230963+3739397. The blue lines show the calculated sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.} \label{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Kepler_foldedLCs} \end{figure} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/titlepages.tex b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/titlepages.tex index 64ad400..25fab12 100644 --- a/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/titlepages.tex +++ b/Physics_Thesis_Template/content/titlepages.tex @@ -29,12 +29,12 @@ \physbf{\thesisName} \\ \physit{\thesisTitle~$-$~\thesisSubtitle} \\[0.5em] Thesis in partial fulfillment of the \hbox{requirements for the degree of \thesisDegree}; \\ - %Thesis submitted on \red{Month DD, 202X}. %and defended on \red{Month DD, 2020}. %e.g. 2020, November 15, 2020. Before submission, uncomment this line, fill out the date, remove the red color of the data and delete the following line, containing 'Unsubmitted Thesis Manuscript'. - \red{\bfseries Unsubmitted Thesis Manuscript: compiled on \thesisDate} + Thesis submitted on \red{June DD, 2025}, and defended on \red{July 10, 2025}. %e.g. 2020, November 15, 2020. Before submission, uncomment this line, fill out the date, remove the red color of the data and delete the following line, containing 'Unsubmitted Thesis Manuscript'. + %\red{\bfseries Unsubmitted Thesis Manuscript: compiled on \thesisDate} \\[0.5em] Institute of Physics, NAWI Graz, University of Graz.\\[1.5em] -\physit{Supervisors}: \thesisFirstSupervisor $^1$ and -\thesisSecondSupervisor $^1$\\ +\physit{Supervisor}: \thesisFirstSupervisor $^1$\\ +\physit{Co-Supervisor}: \thesisSecondSupervisor $^1$\\ %\physit{Jury panel}: $^1$~Institut für Physik, \hbox{NAWI\,Graz, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 5/II, 8010 Graz, Austria.}\\ } \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/Physics_Thesis_Template/gui/statistics_summary_window.png b/Physics_Thesis_Template/gui/statistics_summary_window.png index 4222306..f8b0c2e 100644 Binary files a/Physics_Thesis_Template/gui/statistics_summary_window.png and b/Physics_Thesis_Template/gui/statistics_summary_window.png differ diff --git a/Physics_Thesis_Template/main.pdf b/Physics_Thesis_Template/main.pdf index 92f8074..6c99769 100644 Binary files a/Physics_Thesis_Template/main.pdf and b/Physics_Thesis_Template/main.pdf differ diff --git a/Physics_Thesis_Template/plots/sine/TYC_4595-107-1/TYC 4595-107-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.5.png b/Physics_Thesis_Template/plots/sine/TYC_4595-107-1/TYC 4595-107-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.5.png new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2b47853 Binary files /dev/null and b/Physics_Thesis_Template/plots/sine/TYC_4595-107-1/TYC 4595-107-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.5.png differ diff --git a/Physics_Thesis_Template/plots/sine/V471Tau/V_star_ V471 Tau-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.1.png b/Physics_Thesis_Template/plots/sine/V471Tau/V_star_ V471 Tau-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.1.png new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5cc6ec8 Binary files /dev/null and b/Physics_Thesis_Template/plots/sine/V471Tau/V_star_ V471 Tau-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.1.png differ