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SGCMarkus 6573aca9a8 last changes 2025-06-10 22:05:37 +02:00
SGCMarkus f0d4d3e45f fight with formatting and add german abstract 2025-06-09 20:24:12 +02:00
SGCMarkus 731d4cfe79 add english abstract and update pdf 2025-06-08 23:50:40 +02:00
SGCMarkus 8051386276 intro: add description what spot modulation/phase mean 2025-06-08 23:50:19 +02:00
SGCMarkus 8f4868e10f recompile pdf 2025-06-08 19:26:47 +02:00
SGCMarkus 80d74e9304 apply corrections 2025-06-08 19:26:26 +02:00
SGCMarkus aa8d0fa670 appendixA: move full star list table to first 2025-06-08 19:25:25 +02:00
SGCMarkus 4b0fcff9b5 apply more corrections 2025-06-05 20:23:54 +02:00
SGCMarkus 1135d65ab4 update to corrections 2025-06-05 12:34:53 +02:00
SGCMarkus 9a04f086ea first corrections 2025-06-03 22:44:59 +02:00
SGCMarkus 29c2ec3001 switch to TU title page with uni graz nawi logo as required 2025-06-03 10:20:24 +02:00
24 changed files with 1600 additions and 818 deletions
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Physics_Thesis_Template/bib-refs.bib
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@@ -1,16 +1,141 @@
@ARTICLE{flares_1,
author = {{Shibata}, Kazunari and {Magara}, Tetsuya},
title = "{Solar Flares: Magnetohydrodynamic Processes}",
journal = {Living Reviews in Solar Physics},
keywords = {magnetic reconnection, particle acceleration, CMEs, plasmoid ejection, MHD, flux emergence, current sheet, space weather, Flares, waves, radiation, Flare, Current Sheet, Magnetic Reconnection, Flux Tube, Flux Rope},
year = 2011,
@ARTICLE{superflare_shapiro,
author = {{Vasilyev}, Valeriy and {Reinhold}, Timo and {Shapiro}, Alexander I. and {Usoskin}, Ilya and {Krivova}, Natalie A. and {Maehara}, Hiroyuki and {Notsu}, Yuta and {Brun}, Allan Sacha and {Solanki}, Sami K. and {Gizon}, Laurent},
title = "{Sun-like stars produce superflares roughly once per century}",
journal = {Science},
keywords = {Astrophysics - Solar and Stellar Astrophysics},
year = 2024,
month = dec,
volume = {8},
volume = {386},
number = {6727},
pages = {1301-1305},
doi = {10.1126/science.adl5441},
archivePrefix = {arXiv},
eprint = {2412.12265},
primaryClass = {astro-ph.SR},
adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024Sci...386.1301V},
adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}
@article{flare_image,
author = {Lysenko, Alexandra and Frederiks, Dmitry and Fleishman, Gregory and Aptekar, Rafail and Altyntsev, A. and Golenetskii, Sergei and Svinkin, Dmitry and Ulanov, Mikhail and Tsvetkova, Anastasia and Ridnaia, Anna},
year = {2019},
month = {06},
pages = {},
title = {X-ray and gamma-ray emission of solar flares},
volume = {63},
journal = {Physics-Uspekhi},
doi = {10.3367/UFNe.2019.06.038757}
}
@article{Shibata_1995,
doi = {10.1086/309688},
url = {https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/309688},
year = {1995},
month = {oct},
publisher = {},
volume = {451},
number = {2},
pages = {L83},
author = {Shibata, K. and Masuda, S. and Shimojo, M. and Hara, H. and Yokoyama, T. and Tsuneta, S. and Kosugi, T. and Ogawara, Y.},
title = {Hot-Plasma Ejections Associated with Compact-Loop Solar Flares},
journal = {The Astrophysical Journal},
abstract = {Masuda et al. found a hard X-ray source well above a soft X-ray loop in impulsive compact-loop flares near the limb. This indicates that main energy release is going on above the soft X-ray loop, and suggests magnetic reconnection occurring above the loop, similar to the classical model for two ribbon flares. If the reconnection hypothesis is correct, a hot plasma (or plasmoid) ejection is expected to be associated with these flares. Using the images taken by the soft X-ray telescope aboard Yohkoh, we searched for such plasma ejections in eight impulsive compact-loop flares near the limb, which are selected in an unbiased manner and include also the Masuda flare, 1992 January 13 flare. We found that all these flares were associated with X-ray plasma ejections high above the soft X-ray loop and the velocity of ejections is within the range of 50-400 km s-1. This result gives further support for magnetic reconnection hypothesis of these impulsive compact-loop flares.}
}
@INPROCEEDINGS{TESS_release,
author = {{Ricker}, George R. and {Winn}, Joshua N. and {Vanderspek}, Roland and {Latham}, David W. and {Bakos}, G{\'a}sp{\'a}r. {\'A}. and {Bean}, Jacob L. and {Berta-Thompson}, Zachory K. and {Brown}, Timothy M. and {Buchhave}, Lars and {Butler}, Nathaniel R. and {Butler}, R. Paul and {Chaplin}, William J. and {Charbonneau}, David and {Christensen-Dalsgaard}, J{\o}rgen and {Clampin}, Mark and {Deming}, Drake and {Doty}, John and {De Lee}, Nathan and {Dressing}, Courtney and {Dunham}, E.~W. and {Endl}, Michael and {Fressin}, Francois and {Ge}, Jian and {Henning}, Thomas and {Holman}, Matthew J. and {Howard}, Andrew W. and {Ida}, Shigeru and {Jenkins}, Jon and {Jernigan}, Garrett and {Johnson}, John A. and {Kaltenegger}, Lisa and {Kawai}, Nobuyuki and {Kjeldsen}, Hans and {Laughlin}, Gregory and {Levine}, Alan M. and {Lin}, Douglas and {Lissauer}, Jack J. and {MacQueen}, Phillip and {Marcy}, Geoffrey and {McCullough}, P.~R. and {Morton}, Timothy D. and {Narita}, Norio and {Paegert}, Martin and {Palle}, Enric and {Pepe}, Francesco and {Pepper}, Joshua and {Quirrenbach}, Andreas and {Rinehart}, S.~A. and {Sasselov}, Dimitar and {Sato}, Bun'ei and {Seager}, Sara and {Sozzetti}, Alessandro and {Stassun}, Keivan G. and {Sullivan}, Peter and {Szentgyorgyi}, Andrew and {Torres}, Guillermo and {Udry}, Stephane and {Villasenor}, Joel},
title = "{Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS)}",
keywords = {Astrophysics - Earth and Planetary Astrophysics, Astrophysics - Solar and Stellar Astrophysics},
booktitle = {Space Telescopes and Instrumentation 2014: Optical, Infrared, and Millimeter Wave},
year = 2014,
editor = {{Oschmann}, Jr., Jacobus M. and {Clampin}, Mark and {Fazio}, Giovanni G. and {MacEwen}, Howard A.},
series = {Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series},
volume = {9143},
month = aug,
eid = {914320},
pages = {914320},
doi = {10.1117/12.2063489},
archivePrefix = {arXiv},
eprint = {1406.0151},
primaryClass = {astro-ph.EP},
adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014SPIE.9143E..20R},
adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}
@article{tess_response_curve,
author = {George R. Ricker and Joshua N. Winn and Roland Vanderspek and David W. Latham and G{\'a}sp{\'a}r {\'A}. Bakos and Jacob L. Bean and Zachory K. Berta-Thompson and Timothy M. Brown and Lars Buchhave and Nathaniel R. Butler and R. Paul Butler and William J. Chaplin and David B. Charbonneau and J{\o}rgen Christensen-Dalsgaard and Mark Clampin and Drake Deming and John P. Doty and Nathan De Lee and Courtney Dressing and Edward W. Dunham and Michael Endl and Fran{\c{c}}ois Fressin and Jian Ge and Thomas Henning and Matthew J. Holman and Andrew W. Howard and Shigeru Ida and Jon M. Jenkins and Garrett Jernigan and John Asher Johnson and Lisa Kaltenegger and Nobuyuki Kawai and Hans Kjeldsen and Gregory Laughlin and Alan M. Levine and Douglas Lin and Jack J. Lissauer and Phillip MacQueen and Geoffrey Marcy and Peter R. McCullough and Timothy D. Morton and Norio Narita and Martin Paegert and Enric Palle and Francesco Pepe and Joshua Pepper and Andreas Quirrenbach and Stephen A. Rinehart and Dimitar Sasselov and Bun’ei Sato and Sara Seager and Alessandro Sozzetti and Keivan G. Stassun and Peter Sullivan and Andrew Szentgyorgyi and Guillermo Torres and Stephane Udry and Joel Villasenor},
title = {{Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite}},
volume = {1},
journal = {Journal of Astronomical Telescopes, Instruments, and Systems},
number = {1},
eid = {6},
pages = {6},
doi = {10.12942/lrsp-2011-6},
adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011LRSP....8....6S},
publisher = {SPIE},
pages = {014003},
keywords = {exoplanet, extrasolar planet, photometry, satellite, transits, Stars, Planets, Space operations, Charge-coupled devices, Cameras, Exoplanets, CCD cameras, Satellites, James Webb Space Telescope, Observatories},
year = {2014},
doi = {10.1117/1.JATIS.1.1.014003},
URL = {https://doi.org/10.1117/1.JATIS.1.1.014003}
}
@INPROCEEDINGS{kepler_sensitivity,
author = {{Rowe}, Jason F. and {Matthews}, Jaymie M. and {Seager}, Sara and {Sasselov}, Dimitar and {Kuschnig}, Rainer and {Guenther}, David B. and {Moffat}, Anthony F.~J. and {Rucinski}, Slavek M. and {Walker}, Gordon A.~H. and {Weiss}, Werner W.},
title = "{Towards the Albedo of an Exoplanet: MOST Satellite Observations of Bright Transiting Exoplanetary Systems}",
keywords = {Astrophysics},
booktitle = {Transiting Planets},
year = 2009,
editor = {{Pont}, Fr{\'e}d{\'e}ric and {Sasselov}, Dimitar and {Holman}, Matthew J.},
series = {IAU Symposium},
volume = {253},
month = feb,
pages = {121-127},
doi = {10.1017/S1743921308026318},
archivePrefix = {arXiv},
eprint = {0807.1928},
primaryClass = {astro-ph},
adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009IAUS..253..121R},
adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}
@ARTICLE{Carrington_event3,
author = {{Hayakawa}, Hisashi and {Bechet}, Sabrina and {Clette}, Fr{\'e}d{\'e}ric and {Hudson}, Hugh S. and {Maehara}, Hiroyuki and {Namekata}, Kosuke and {Notsu}, Yuta},
title = "{Magnitude Estimates for the Carrington Flare in 1859 September: As Seen from the Original Records}",
journal = {\apjl},
keywords = {Solar flares, Solar storm, Sunspots, Solar active regions, Solar x-ray flares, Solar white-light flares, Space weather, 1496, 1526, 1653, 1974, 1816, 1983, 2037},
year = 2023,
month = sep,
volume = {954},
number = {1},
eid = {L3},
pages = {L3},
doi = {10.3847/2041-8213/acd853},
adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023ApJ...954L...3H},
adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}
@ARTICLE{Carrington_event2,
author = {{Hodgson}, R.},
title = "{On a curious Appearance seen in the Sun}",
journal = {\mnras},
year = 1859,
month = nov,
volume = {20},
pages = {15-16},
doi = {10.1093/mnras/20.1.15a},
adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1859MNRAS..20...15H},
adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}
@ARTICLE{Carrington_event,
author = {{Carrington}, R.~C.},
title = "{Description of a Singular Appearance seen in the Sun on September 1, 1859}",
journal = {\mnras},
year = 1859,
month = nov,
volume = {20},
pages = {13-15},
doi = {10.1093/mnras/20.1.13},
adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1859MNRAS..20...13C},
adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}
@@ -53,6 +178,47 @@ volume = {4},
journal = {Defence S\&T Technical Bulletin}
}
@ARTICLE{flare_duration,
author = {{Reep}, Jeffrey W. and {Barnes}, Will T.},
title = "{Forecasting the Remaining Duration of an Ongoing Solar Flare}",
journal = {Space Weather},
keywords = {solar flares, forecasting, Astrophysics - Solar and Stellar Astrophysics, Physics - Space Physics},
year = 2021,
month = oct,
volume = {19},
number = {10},
eid = {e02754},
pages = {e02754},
doi = {10.1029/2021SW002754},
archivePrefix = {arXiv},
eprint = {2103.03957},
primaryClass = {astro-ph.SR},
adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021SpWea..1902754R},
adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}
@article{priest_2,
author = {Priest, Eric and Forbes, T.G.},
year = {2002},
month = {01},
pages = {313-377},
title = {The magnetic nature of solar flares},
volume = {10},
journal = {Astronomy and Astrophysics Review},
doi = {10.1007/s001590100013}
}
@BOOK{priest_1,
author = {{Priest}, Eric and {Forbes}, Terry},
title = "{Magnetic Reconnection: MHD Theory and Applications}",
year = 2000,
doi = {10.1017/CBO9780511525087},
adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000mare.book.....P},
adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}
@misc{soho_project_page,
author = {{The SOHO Team}},
url = {https://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/},
@@ -976,7 +1142,7 @@ archivePrefix = {arXiv},
}
@software{pandas,
author = {The pandas development team},
author = {{The pandas development team}},
title = {pandas-dev/pandas: Pandas},
month = feb,
year = 2020,
Physics_Thesis_Template/content/abstract.tex
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@@ -9,22 +9,45 @@
%\noindent
\physbf{Context.~}%\lipsum[1]
\physbf{Context.~} In recent years detection of flares and superflares on stars gained a lot of attention, but the origin of superflares is still under debate. One possibility is that superflares are scaled up versions of normal flares, for which one would expect to find a correlation with the appearance of spots on the stars surface.
\\[0.75em]
%\noindent
\physbf{Aims.~}%\lipsum[1]
\physbf{Aims.~} This study aims to relate flares and superflares on stars to the appearance of spots on the surfaces of stars of various spectral types (M, K, G, and F) using Kepler/K2 and TESS lightcurves.
\\[0.75em]
\noindent
\physbf{Methods.~}%\lipsum[1]
\physbf{Methods.~} Over 300 stars were analysed with a newly developed GUI application and flare detection algorithm, which can detect flares with normalized peaks of as low as 0.3\% above their surrounding flux. The lightcurves are then folded by the automatically detected spot modulation period and the dependence of flare counts across the normalized phase are analyzed.
\\[0.75em]
\noindent
\physbf{Results.~}%\lipsum[1]
\physbf{Results.~} The analysed stars are investigated according to their spectral type. We also present individual results for BD-08 995, TYC 1360-957-1, TYC 4595-107-1, V* V471 Tau, V* HK Aqr, KOI-256 and 2MASS J19230963+3739397. The only cumulative results which shows a significant spot dependence are those for G type stars. The results for K type stars show one significant peak in the 10 bin histogram. There was no significant spot dependence found for M type stars, even though some individual stars show a distinct spot dependence.
\\[0.75em]
\noindent
\physbf{Conclusions.~}%\lipsum[1]
\physbf{Conclusions.~} Investigations of spot to flare dependence from literature could be partially reproduced. It is furthermore found that the used flare algorithm as well as the sample of stars used for analysis affect the results. The present investigation has revealed that only G-type main-sequence stars show a larger number of flares on a more spotted hemisphere.
%\vspace*{10mm}
%\noindent
%\physit{Keywords:~}
%select up to six keywords from the list in Appendix A in the A&A editorial guidelines (page 11, https://www.aanda.org/doc_journal/instructions/aadoc.pdf)
\pdfbookmark[0]{Kurzfassung}{Kurzfassung}
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Kurzfassung}
\chapter*{Kurzfassung}
\label{sec:Kurzfassung}
\vspace*{-10mm}
%\noindent
\physbf{Kontext.~} In den letzten Jahren hat die Detektion von Flares und Superflares auf Sternen viel Aufmerksamkeit erhalten, jedoch ist der Ursprung von Superflares immer noch umstritten. Eine Möglichkeit ist, dass Superflares energiereichere normale Flares sind. In diesem Fall wäre eine Korrelation mit dem Auftreten von Flecken auf der Sternoberfläche zu erwarten.
\\[0.75em]
%\noindent
\physbf{Ziele.~} Das Ziel dieser Studie ist es Flares und Superflares und das Auftreten von Flecken auf Sternoberflächen verschiedener Spektraltypen (M, K, G, und F) in Relation zu bringen. Dafür wurden Lichtkurven von Kepler/K2 und TESS verwendet.
\\[0.75em]
\noindent
\physbf{Methoden.~} Es wurden über 300 Sterne mit einer neu entwickelten GUI-Anwendung und einem Flareerkennungsalgorithmus analysiert, welcher Flares mit normalisierten Spitzenwerten von 0.3\% über dem Umgebungsfluss erkennen kann. Die Lichtkurven werden danach mit einer automatisch erkannten Fleckenmodulationsperiode gefaltet und die Abhängigkeit der Flareanzahl von der normalisierten Phase wurde analysiert.
\\[0.75em]
\noindent
\physbf{Ergebnisse.~} Die analysierten Sterne wurden anhand ihres Spektraltyps untersucht. Wir präsentieren auch einzelne Ergebnisse für die Sterne BD-08 995, TYC 1360-957-1, TYC 4595-107-1, V* V471 Tau, V* HK Aqr, KOI-256 und 2MASS J19230963+3739397. Die einzige signifikante Fleckenabhängigkeit wurde bei den Gesamtergebnissen für G-Sterne gefunden. Die Ergebnisse für K-Sterne zeigen einen signifikanten Spitzenwert im Histogramm mit 10 Bins. Für M-Sterne wurde keine signifikante Abhängigkeit gefunden, obwohl ein paar Einzelsterne eine Abhängigkeit aufweisen.
\\[0.75em]
\noindent
\physbf{Fazit.~} Ähnliche Untersuchungen aus der Literatur konnten teilweise reproduziert werden. Darüber hinaus wurde ermittelt, dass sowohl der Flareerkennungsalgorithmus als auch die Auswahl an analysierten Sternen einen Einfluss auf das Ergebnis haben. Die derzeitige Untersuchung hat gezeigt, dass nur Hauptreihensterne vom Spektraltyp G eine erhöhte Anzahl an Flares auf einer fleckenreicheren Hemisphäre zeigen.
Physics_Thesis_Template/content/acknowledgement.tex
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@@ -8,7 +8,9 @@
% Acknowledge infrastructure and people that supported you in your thesis. This can also cover family, friends, etc.
I gratefully acknowledge my supervisors \thesisFirstSupervisor and \thesisSecondSupervisor for guiding me through the process.
I gratefully acknowledge my supervisors \thesisFirstSupervisor~and \thesisSecondSupervisor~for guiding me through the process.
Additionally I thank Dr. Petra Odert for proof reading the manuscript as well as providing helpful comments.
I thank my family and friends for supporting me.
@@ -24,11 +26,11 @@ This thesis made use of the experimental setups, laboratory and technical infras
%\texttt{scipy} \citep{2020SciPy-NMeth},
%\texttt{pandas} \citep{reback2020pandas, mckinney-proc-scipy-2010}.
%This research made use of \texttt{astropy} \citep{astropy:2013, astropy:2018}., a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy.
This research made use of pandas \citep{reback2020pandas, mckinney-proc-scipy-2010}.
This research made use of pandas \citep{pandas, mckinney-proc-scipy-2010}.
This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy \citep{astropy:2013, astropy:2018}.
This research made use of SciPy \citep{2020SciPy-NMeth}.
This research made use of SciPy \citep{scipy}.
This research made use of matplotlib, a Python library for publication quality graphics \citep{4160265}.
This research made use of NumPy \citep{numpy,Harris_2020}.
This research made use of NumPy \citep{numpy}.
This research made use of Astroquery \citep{astroquery}.
This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.
@@ -40,4 +42,4 @@ This paper includes data collected with the TESS mission, obtained from the MAST
% acknowledge FUNDING that you have received as financial support
%acknowledge sources of funding like a travel grant or a Erasmus fellowship, e.g.:
I gratefully acknowledge the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): P30949-N36 (PI: xxx) for supporting this project.
I gratefully acknowledge the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): I5711-N (PI: Martin Leitzinger) for supporting this project.
Physics_Thesis_Template/content/appendixA.tex
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@@ -4,453 +4,7 @@
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all stars of spectra type M for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_m_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endhead
\hline
\endfoot
\hline\hline
\endlastfoot
2MASS J18565158+4448162 & M & TIC 164671055 & KIC 8673358 & sine \\
2MASS J18570619+4516101 & M & TIC 164677934 & KIC 8935942 & sine \\
2MASS J18572876+4035369 & M & TIC 120251682 & KIC 5342558 & sine \\
2MASS J19023480+4539052 & M & TIC 352013620 & KIC 9205855 & sine \\
2MASS J19061662+4502422 & M & TIC 158274889 & KIC 8807085 & sine \\
2MASS J19074075+3752413 & M & TIC 121022434 & KIC 2557669 & sine \\
2MASS J19230963+3739397 & M & TIC 122672447 & KIC 2300039 & sine \\
2MASS J19255059+4532219 & M & TIC 159761686 & KIC 9153754 & sine \\
2MASS J19421615+4928069 & M & TIC 27531488 & KIC 11515276 & sine \\
UCAC4 643-073385 & M & TIC 138647610 & KIC 3454793 & sine \\
1RXS J060224.9-163451 & M0 & TIC 95328477 & - & sine \\
V* MY Tau & M0.5e & TIC 348638763 & - & sine \\
WOH S 209 & M0: & TIC 179038379 & - & sine \\
V* HK Aqr & M0Ve & TIC 5656273 & - & sine \\
V* OT Ser & M1.0V & TIC 355793860 & - & sine, poly \\
V* V631 Tau & M1.5 & TIC 348638813 & - & sine \\
2MASS J18563342+4513481 & M1.5V & TIC 164670606 & KIC 8935655 & sine \\
V* FF And & M1Ve+M1Ve & TIC 267802440 & - & sine \\
{[LM84]} 3-13 & M2 & TIC 165124012 & - & sine \\
V* AX Cnc & M2.0 & TIC 175233993 & - & sine, poly \\
1RXS J004211.1-425245 & M2.2 & TIC 80427281 & - & sine \\
2MASS J04133314-5231586 & M2.4 & TIC 219229275 & - & sine \\
G 10-29 & M2.5V & TIC 396951485 & - & sine \\
ASAS J232857-6802.4 & M2.5Ve & TIC 229807000 & - & sine \\
V* V497 Tau & M2.9 & TIC 258032026 & - & sine \\
CD-51 13128 & M2Ve & TIC 140045538 & - & sine \\
UCAC4 698-065839 & M3.0 & TIC 48504458 & KIC 11495571 & sine \\
G 9-11 & M3.0V & TIC 21246336 & - & sine \\
G 209-3 & M3.4 & TIC 28231379 & KIC 10877432 & sine \\
V* LT Tau & M3.5 & TIC 258067389 & - & sine \\
BD-15 6290 & M3.5V & TIC 188580272 & - & sine \\
2MASS J22371494-2622332 & M3.5Ve & TIC 326446019 & - & sine \\
KOI-256 & M3V & TIC 48528261 & KIC 11548140 & sine \\
LAMOST J192817.82+410412.2 & M3V & TIC 137410897 & KIC 5791720 & sine \\
CD-56 1032A & M3Ve & TIC 220433363 & - & sine \\
2MASS J04534379-5836247 & M3e & TIC 220432563 & - & sine \\
1RXS J185504.7+425952 & M4.0V & TIC 164644375 & KIC 7341653 & sine \\
HG 8-80 & M4.0V & TIC 435916078 & - & sine \\
V* EV Lac & M4.0Ve & TIC 154101678 & - & sine \\
2MASS J01275875-6032243 & M4.2 & TIC 237910557 & - & sine \\
G 6-7 & M4.5V & TIC 456938518 & - & sine \\
2MASS J19005766+4428279 & M4Ve & TIC 164889852 & KIC 8416220 & sine \\
CD-56 1032B & M4Ve & TIC 220433364 & - & sine \\
Kepler-1646 & M4Ve & TIC 158552258 & KIC 7350067 & sine \\
2MASS J21484123-4736506 & M5 & TIC 147421845 & - & sine \\
UCAC3 53-724 & M5.5V & TIC 425937691 & - & sine \\
G 205-40 & M5V & TIC 164458193 & KIC 9201463 & sine \\
LP 357-206 & M5e & TIC 14079970 & - & sine \\
V* V692 Tau & M: & TIC 149923415 & - & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
{
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all stars of spectra type K for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_k_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endhead
\hline
\endfoot
\hline\hline
\endlastfoot
1RXS J064643.6-770027 & K & TIC 177255827 & - & sine \\
2MASS J19404949+5046469 & K & TIC 27398219 & KIC 12166457 & sine \\
CPD-19 878 & K & TIC 93125144 & - & sine \\
Kepler-693 & K & TIC 237159318 & KIC 5164255 & sine \\
PM J07058-5848 & K & TIC 279615427 & - & sine \\
TYC 1360-957-1 & K & TIC 247117382 & - & sine \\
HD 245924 & K0IV & TIC 19934471 & - & sine \\
CD-26 1578 & K0V & TIC 44797824 & - & sine \\
TYC 553-33-1 & K0V:e & TIC 405405298 & - & sine \\
RX J1925.0+4429 & K1V & TIC 159721038 & KIC 8429280 & sine \\
HD 215341 & K1Ve & TIC 145752454 & - & sine \\
TYC 582-114-1 & K1Ve & TIC 344163180 & - & sine \\
V* LQ Hya & K1Vp & TIC 46907042 & - & sine \\
Kepler-1558 & K2 & TIC 158322085 & KIC 10000941 & sine \\
HD 283750 & K2.5Ve & TIC 125838647 & - & sine \\
CD-52 381 & K2V(e) & TIC 229151691 & - & sine \\
V* V471 Tau & K2V+DA & TIC 456863710 & - & sine \\
Kepler-411 & K3V & TIC 399954349 & KIC 11551692 & sine \\
BD-13 6131 & K3Ve & TIC 437696706 & - & sine \\
V* BY Dra & K4Ve+K7.5Ve & TIC 47579336 & - & sine \\
V* CC Eri & K7V & TIC 142206123 & - & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
{
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all stars of spectra type G for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_g_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endhead
\hline
\endfoot
\hline\hline
\endlastfoot
2MASS J18425375+4345336 & G & TIC 123198563 & KIC 7936748 & sine \\
2MASS J19061691+4654395 & G & TIC 158272786 & KIC 10000509 & sine \\
2MASS J19320792+3933052 & G & TIC 137972488 & KIC 4469481 & sine \\
2MASS J19553242+4737586 & G & TIC 268382866 & KIC 10491422 & sine \\
2MASS J20060991+4417004 & G & TIC 185335830 & KIC 8332459 & sine \\
ATO J285.5682+44.5725 & G & TIC 352012409 & KIC 8481574 & sine \\
BD-08 995 & G & TIC 43472154 & - & sine \\
Kepler-725 & G & TIC 164652841 & KIC 8672910 & sine \\
TYC 4595-107-1 & G & TIC 394030788 & - & sine \\
V* V452 Lyr & G & - & KIC 7742289 & sine \\
BD-01 2318 & G0 & TIC 78234015 & - & sine \\
HD 295290 & G0 & TIC 53417036 & - & sine \\
TYC 3146-672-1 & G2V & TIC 159448893 & KIC 7523785 & sine \\
HD 214261 & G5 & TIC 200501090 & - & sine \\
KOI-644 & G5 & TIC 122138452 & KIC 5356593 & sine \\
HD 23524 & G5V & TIC 428761512 & - & sine \\
V* AG Lep & G5V & TIC 92845906 & - & sine \\
HD 222259A & G6V & TIC 410214986 & - & sine \\
Kepler-605 & G7 & TIC 158423850 & KIC 7595157 & sine, poly \\
HD 180445 & G8V(e) & TIC 97914505 & - & sine \\
HD 220186 & G9Ve & TIC 49619607 & - & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
{
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all stars of spectra type F for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_f_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endhead
\hline
\endfoot
\hline\hline
\endlastfoot
Kepler-380 & F & TIC 48132154 & KIC 11121752 & sine \\
KOI-19 & F3/F5V & TIC 123201406 & KIC 7255336 & sine \\
TYC 3557-1501-1 & F6IV & TIC 273043859 & KIC 9724820 & sine \\
Kepler-1084 & F8V & TIC 267749737 & KIC 10857519 & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
{
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all stars which where analysed. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_unused_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endhead
\hline
\endfoot
\hline\hline
\endlastfoot
HD 225391 & A & TIC 139156518 & KIC 5632093 & sine \\
HD 226712 & A & TIC 171882897 & KIC 5905878 & sine \\
TYC 3125-2237-1 & A & TIC 121274152 & KIC 4641547 & sine \\
HD 187141 & A0 & TIC 360021868 & KIC 6381306 & sine \\
HD 188360 & A0 & TIC 28359846 & KIC 10815604 & sine \\
HD 177982 & A2 & TIC 120821069 & KIC 4995049 & sine \\
HD 225493 & A4V & TIC 184163024 & KIC 5201872 & sine \\
TYC 3551-561-1 & A5IV & TIC 26418553 & KIC 11296464 & sine \\
HD 225333 & A5V & TIC 139037071 & KIC 3458671 & sine \\
AG+46 1529 & A7III & TIC 273380253 & KIC 9604762 & sine \\
TYC 3560-1923-1 & A9IV–V & TIC 271167267 & KIC 10281360 & sine \\
TYC 3565-514-1 & A9V & TIC 27458214 & KIC 11197934 & sine \\
KOI-3818 & B9.5Vn & TIC 159102838 & KIC 6515722 & sine \\
2MASS J18491671+4410445 & F & TIC 123449867 & KIC 8212826 & sine \\
KOI-4698 & F & TIC 159643077 & KIC 10663738 & sine \\
Kepler-1271 & F & TIC 120825510 & KIC 1996180 & sine \\
Kepler-1443 & F & TIC 164525743 & KIC 10057494 & sine \\
Kepler-494 & F & TIC 169176556 & KIC 6305192 & sine \\
TYC 3134-301-1 & F & TIC 137483286 & KIC 3852772 & sine \\
TYC 3557-727-1 & F3/F5V & TIC 273684688 & KIC 9788113 & sine \\
TYC 3140-1658-1 & F5 & TIC 138967825 & KIC 5802601 & sine \\
KOI-44 & F7IV & TIC 239276046 & KIC 8845026 & sine \\
2MASS J18495232+4309276 & G & TIC 123489639 & KIC 7503439 & \\
2MASS J18525868+4530560 & G & TIC 164458315 & KIC 9137611 & sine \\
2MASS J18582492+4446498 & G & TIC 164779298 & KIC 8609289 & sine \\
2MASS J19012927+4104159 & G & TIC 120496415 & KIC 5773205 & sine \\
2MASS J19043346+4427484 & G & TIC 158171605 & KIC 8417863 & sine \\
2MASS J19065549+3937268 & G & TIC 121012476 & KIC 4546541 & sine \\
2MASS J19080680+4450500 & G & TIC 158391683 & KIC 8678334 & sine \\
2MASS J19100183+4257041 & G & TIC 158552191 & KIC 7350021 & sine \\
2MASS J19182441+4439465 & G & TIC 159097797 & KIC 8554173 & sine \\
2MASS J19184939+4418233 & G & TIC 159107064 & KIC 8359762 & sine \\
2MASS J19185028+4633324 & G & TIC 159171504 & KIC 9765670 & sine \\
2MASS J19250540+3734332 & G & TIC 137097085 & KIC 2159377 & sine \\
2MASS J19280249+3911165 & G & TIC 137402956 & KIC 4058829 & sine, poly \\
2MASS J19283146+3837123 & G & TIC 137484235 & KIC 3547283 & sine \\
2MASS J19313155+4628249 & G & TIC 63452929 & KIC 9712781 & sine \\
2MASS J19350077+4608423 & G & TIC 270698467 & KIC 9531002 & sine \\
2MASS J19354814+4118464 & G & TIC 138431713 & KIC 6049426 & sine \\
2MASS J19354900+4623499 & G & TIC 270789534 & KIC 9654338 & sine \\
2MASS J19364457+4403341 & G & TIC 270859571 & KIC 8172597 & sine \\
2MASS J19370439+4626209 & G & TIC 270957778 & KIC 9716208 & sine \\
2MASS J19390861+4046149 & G & TIC 138725759 & KIC 5544024 & sine \\
2MASS J19395042+4622296 & G & TIC 271354512 & KIC 9657062 & sine \\
2MASS J19415575+4522369 & G & TIC 271664690 & KIC 9032578 & sine \\
2MASS J19450785+5108395 & G & TIC 27778260 & KIC 12367153 & sine \\
2MASS J19484658+5002007 & G & TIC 28084005 & KIC 11825619 & sine \\
2MASS J19491761+4638356 & G & TIC 273131067 & KIC 9845711 & sine \\
2MASS J19535154+4211197 & G & TIC 274119294 & KIC 6719122 & sine \\
2MASS J19551628+4145582 & G & TIC 171093514 & KIC 6390935 & sine \\
2MASS J19562459+4408276 & G & TIC 268606798 & KIC 8257716 & sine \\
2MASS J19572618+4520510 & G & TIC 268712881 & KIC 9048032 & sine \\
2MASS J19583564+4352320 & G & TIC 269121724 & KIC 8055957 & sine \\
KOI-1747 & G & TIC 159717069 & KIC 7032421 & sine \\
KOI-2324 & G & TIC 159105557 & KIC 7746958 & poly \\
KOI-5796 & G & TIC 63070665 & KIC 10470779 & sine \\
KOI-5810 & G & TIC 123494489 & KIC 10581308 & sine \\
KOI-5825 & G & TIC 27183790 & KIC 10737437 & sine \\
KOI-5952 & G & TIC 27845077 & KIC 12071775 & sine \\
KOI-741 & G & TIC 272840512 & KIC 10418797 & sine \\
Kepler-1060 & G & TIC 120691237 & KIC 4544907 & \\
Kepler-1198 & G & TIC 158843826 & KIC 8681734 & sine \\
Kepler-1839 & G & TIC 27082730 & KIC 11818607 & sine \\
Kepler-513 & G & TIC 48503953 & KIC 11802615 & sine \\
Kepler-739 & G & TIC 159225155 & KIC 9766437 & \\
UCAC4 640-067417 & G & TIC 122517231 & KIC 2709412 & sine \\
UCAC4 686-075120 & G & TIC 269030397 & KIC 10098932 & sine \\
TYC 3560-458-1 & G0 & TIC 26815845 & KIC 10922836 & sine \\
TYC 3557-1509-1 & G0.5V & TIC 273379797 & KIC 9726613 & sine \\
TYC 3139-951-1 & G0V & TIC 138215507 & KIC 4660797 & sine \\
Kepler-1424 & G1.5Vb & TIC 122706631 & KIC 5096590 & sine \\
KOI-6202 & G1V & TIC 164669854 & KIC 9389245 & sine \\
Kepler-400 & G2V & TIC 122707140 & KIC 5272233 & sine \\
TYC 3131-2137-1 & G2V & TIC 164460243 & KIC 7871914 & sine \\
TYC 3545-2661-1 & G2V & TIC 399827121 & KIC 10850420 & sine \\
HD 183473 & G5 & TIC 63120335 & KIC 7201012 & sine, poly \\
TYC 3550-241-1 & G5 & TIC 299088815 & KIC 12008308 & sine \\
TYC 3562-2088-1 & G5V & TIC 273872314 & KIC 10093680 & sine \\
TYC 3128-2312-1 & G8V & TIC 120686876 & KIC 5944209 & sine \\
2MASS J18524052+4156057 & K & - & KIC 6500181 & sine \\
2MASS J18534407+4208274 & K & - & KIC 6668646 & sine \\
2MASS J18535462+4135227 & K & - & KIC 6183672 & sine \\
2MASS J19004200+3903124 & K & TIC 399794444 & KIC 3935803 & sine \\
2MASS J19082791+4337114 & K & TIC 158389986 & KIC 7879384 & sine \\
2MASS J19324909+4229041 & K & TIC 275495685 & KIC 6953069 & sine \\
ATO J296.1841+42.6311 & K & TIC 272184059 & KIC 7133807 & sine \\
KOI-7449 & K & TIC 279918401 & KIC 11495989 & sine \\
KOI-8047 & K & TIC 290034561 & KIC 11294822 & sine \\
Kepler-1259 & K & TIC 273592350 & KIC 10028535 & sine \\
Kepler-1782 & K & TIC 123202646 & KIC 8142942 & sine \\
Kepler-1856 & K & TIC 27687265 & KIC 12469800 & sine \\
Kepler-1966 & K & TIC 137627194 & KIC 5962262 & sine \\
Kepler-246 & K & TIC 272484980 & KIC 7134976 & sine \\
2MASS J19200703+4335050 & K0V & TIC 159220196 & KIC 7816999 & sine \\
BD+41 3306 & K0V & TIC 394172596 & KIC 6278762 & sine, poly \\
V* V4371 Sgr & K1V & TIC 151839506 & - & poly \\
2MASS J19400800+4923036 & K5 & TIC 27390487 & KIC 11461764 & sine \\
2MASS J18460555+4332131 & M & TIC 123317330 & KIC 7800087 & \\
2MASS J18472701+4348011 & M & TIC 123410529 & KIC 8007234 & sine \\
2MASS J18491356+4619042 & M & TIC 123447780 & KIC 9631548 & sine \\
2MASS J18511354+4227227 & M & TIC 164411695 & KIC 6925256 & sine \\
2MASS J18511902+4837594 & M & TIC 48216443 & KIC 11069034 & sine \\
2MASS J18512069+4846013 & M & TIC 48216303 & KIC 11122350 & sine \\
2MASS J18524238+4828368 & M & TIC 48304549 & KIC 10960823 & sine \\
2MASS J18525314+4818044 & M & TIC 48304703 & KIC 10905192 & sine \\
2MASS J18525455+4634012 & M & TIC 164457389 & KIC 9754582 & sine \\
2MASS J18531060+4050093 & M & TIC 237158804 & KIC 5597695 & sine \\
2MASS J18535987+4741070 & M & TIC 164525174 & KIC 10452840 & sine \\
2MASS J18541728+4305206 & M & TIC 164529739 & KIC 7422811 & sine \\
2MASS J18545269+4107528 & M & TIC 350987684 & KIC 5855808 & sine \\
2MASS J18561787+4457391 & M & TIC 164670879 & KIC 8737443 & sine \\
2MASS J18574689+4115593 & M & TIC 120254207 & KIC 5941226 & sine \\
2MASS J18592859+4351465 & M & TIC 164786997 & KIC 8012943 & sine \\
2MASS J19000393+4109460 & M & TIC 120419969 & KIC 5858361 & sine \\
2MASS J19001025+4045358 & M & TIC 120422710 & KIC 5515142 & sine \\
2MASS J19005916+4400190 & M & TIC 164889286 & KIC 8150479 & sine \\
2MASS J19011064+4206175 & M & TIC 164886887 & KIC 6672948 & sine \\
2MASS J19011256+4152067 & M & TIC 399822429 & KIC 6425989 & sine \\
2MASS J19020142+4110533 & M & TIC 120576193 & KIC 5859365 & sine \\
2MASS J19024516+4429007 & M & TIC 352012319 & KIC 8417053 & \\
2MASS J19030585+4046008 & M & TIC 120579026 & KIC 5516671 & sine \\
2MASS J19033576+3941263 & M & TIC 120684614 & KIC 4544623 & sine \\
2MASS J19034709+4317208 & M & TIC 158166384 & KIC 7592133 & sine \\
2MASS J19035284+4338273 & M & TIC 158165866 & KIC 7877209 & sine \\
2MASS J19041026+4530403 & M & TIC 158172860 & KIC 9142714 & sine \\
2MASS J19053703+4235308 & M & TIC 158218091 & KIC 7018323 & sine \\
2MASS J19061507+5029221 & M & TIC 399825094 & KIC 12004872 & sine \\
2MASS J19063685+4928043 & M & TIC 399825963 & KIC 11498106 & sine \\
2MASS J19064350+5020087 & M & TIC 399825217 & KIC 11955208 & sine \\
2MASS J19064648+4931162 & M & TIC 399825921 & KIC 11550428 & sine \\
2MASS J19081745+3902346 & M & TIC 121085753 & KIC 3940372 & sine \\
2MASS J19083962+4221137 & M & TIC 158388172 & KIC 6849112 & sine \\
2MASS J19085407+4320395 & M & TIC 158423632 & KIC 7670700 & sine \\
2MASS J19103260+4322147 & M & TIC 158551504 & KIC 7671594 & sine \\
2MASS J19104382+4039368 & M & TIC 121329525 & KIC 5435958 & sine \\
2MASS J19110814+4024571 & M & TIC 121333779 & KIC 5262561 & sine \\
2MASS J19114749+4048205 & M & TIC 121461193 & KIC 5608002 & sine \\
2MASS J19130891+5127421 & M & TIC 298961665 & KIC 12505054 & sine \\
2MASS J19135561+4319299 & M & TIC 158725435 & KIC 7673428 & sine \\
2MASS J19141052+4559479 & M & TIC 158787568 & KIC 9396972 & sine \\
2MASS J19143720+4243450 & M & TIC 158795349 & KIC 7190459 & \\
2MASS J19152845+5001374 & M & TIC 299088298 & KIC 11808734 & sine \\
2MASS J19160242+4726491 & M & TIC 158983853 & KIC 10332732 & sine \\
2MASS J19170322+4953087 & M & TIC 299159305 & KIC 11708034 & sine \\
2MASS J19200001+3844383 & M & TIC 122225323 & KIC 3640527 & sine \\
2MASS J19200978+4954168 & M & TIC 267747418 & KIC 11760021 & sine \\
2MASS J19205088+5018194 & M & TIC 406950619 & KIC 11961075 & sine \\
2MASS J19210354+4523201 & M & TIC 159303166 & KIC 9017693 & sine \\
2MASS J19213187+4459115 & M & TIC 159387244 & KIC 8749769 & sine \\
2MASS J19232149+5107053 & M & TIC 417655942 & KIC 12356051 & sine \\
2MASS J19233077+5035350 & M & TIC 417656504 & KIC 12060710 & sine \\
2MASS J19233788+4518061 & M & TIC 159520226 & KIC 9019435 & sine \\
2MASS J19240851+3747169 & M & TIC 122781970 & KIC 2441562 & sine \\
2MASS J19242752+5106364 & M & TIC 350738203 & KIC 12356489 & sine \\
2MASS J19291103+4821243 & M & TIC 424864617 & KIC 10921009 & sine \\
2MASS J19304396+4112528 & M & TIC 137759349 & KIC 5962956 & sine \\
2MASS J19304840+4142454 & M & TIC 137758161 & KIC 6366739 & sine \\
2MASS J19335656+4010546 & M & - & KIC 5016904 & sine, poly \\
2MASS J19343395+4137235 & M & TIC 138222062 & KIC 6290811 & sine \\
2MASS J19353467+3943573 & M & TIC 138436033 & KIC 4662431 & sine \\
2MASS J19353874+4708324 & M & TIC 270790828 & KIC 10146539 & \\
2MASS J19365745+4628121 & M & TIC 270957843 & KIC 9716117 & sine \\
2MASS J19374745+4341098 & M & TIC 271047224 & KIC 7898781 & sine \\
2MASS J19423900+5108356 & M & TIC 27639064 & KIC 12365719 & sine \\
2MASS J19433653+4758149 & M & TIC 27645448 & KIC 10676126 & sine \\
2MASS J19443380+4843497 & M & TIC 27770198 & KIC 11147271 & sine \\
2MASS J19444493+4720327 & M & TIC 272279258 & KIC 10285642 & sine \\
2MASS J19450930+4754591 & M & TIC 27771932 & KIC 10677397 & sine \\
2MASS J19451164+4345265 & M & TIC 272270363 & KIC 7973675 & sine \\
2MASS J19454134+3906345 & M & TIC 184471264 & KIC 4077867 & sine \\
2MASS J19471875+4123248 & M & TIC 239228371 & KIC 6060845 & sine \\
2MASS J19471987+4747258 & M & TIC 272841049 & KIC 10548508 & sine \\
2MASS J19480997+4310160 & M & TIC 272943707 & KIC 7547969 & sine \\
2MASS J19503771+4705359 & M & TIC 273378083 & KIC 10091786 & sine \\
2MASS J19503804+4041450 & M & TIC 169816129 & KIC 5471468 & sine \\
2MASS J19505785+4630250 & M & TIC 273379615 & KIC 9786877 & sine \\
2MASS J19510637+4505045 & M & TIC 273383619 & KIC 8836388 & sine \\
2MASS J19525571+4743328 & M & TIC 273874034 & KIC 10553513 & sine \\
2MASS J19542833+4420425 & M & TIC 268158580 & KIC 8387621 & sine \\
2MASS J19543981+4814406 & M & TIC 264508845 & KIC 10880514 & sine \\
2MASS J19550625+4009192 & M & TIC 171101426 & KIC 5041192 & sine \\
2MASS J19553603+4805356 & M & TIC 416528859 & KIC 10753072 & sine \\
2MASS J19561258+4335485 & M & TIC 268485803 & KIC 7847566 & sine \\
2MASS J19584764+4711122 & M & TIC 269029909 & KIC 10165815 & sine \\
2MASS J20000387+4531405 & M & TIC 239234887 & KIC 9179906 & sine \\
ATO J285.1153+45.7850 & M & TIC 164882037 & KIC 9267818 & sine \\
KOI-1654 & M & TIC 48355200 & KIC 11546211 & sine \\
UCAC4 639-062929 & M & TIC 120963868 & KIC 2284919 & sine \\
UCAC4 651-066418 & M & TIC 120354289 & KIC 4904647 & sine \\
UCAC4 661-082974 & M & TIC 268288304 & KIC 6720765 & sine \\
UCAC4 664-071715 & M & TIC 158430593 & KIC 7104739 & sine \\
UCAC4 668-073165 & M & TIC 158432884 & KIC 7741987 & sine \\
UCAC4 683-066189 & M & TIC 351897570 & KIC 9692206 & sine \\
UCAC4 707-062317 & M & TIC 299097784 & KIC 12403318 & sine \\
Kepler-210 & M0V & TIC 63283780 & KIC 7447200 & poly \\
MCC 428 & M0V & TIC 434136638 & - & \\
HG 7-26 & M1 & TIC 345454031 & - & \\
G 6-33 & M1.5V & TIC 434160946 & - & sine \\
HD 197481 & M1VeBa1 & TIC 441420236 & - & poly \\
2MASS J19412234+5104273 & M2.1 & TIC 27454242 & KIC 12314646 & sine \\
PM J19399+3950 & M2.5 & TIC 138893136 & KIC 4758595 & sine \\
UCAC4 647-065171 & M2.5 & TIC 121215155 & KIC 4142890 & sine \\
LP 474-124 & M2.5V & TIC 348663808 & - & \\
2MASS J19130537+5020559 & M2.5Ve & TIC 298962893 & KIC 11957647 & sine \\
2MASS J19324802+4200580 & M2.7 & TIC 275496670 & KIC 6610837 & sine \\
2MASS J19445931+4812415 & M2.8 & TIC 27772498 & KIC 10872868 & sine \\
2MASS J19183060+4153031 & M3 & TIC 122067236 & KIC 6436291 & sine \\
{[PS78]} 219 & M3+ & TIC 11652986 & - & \\
UCAC4 673-078334 & M3.0Ve & TIC 272272592 & KIC 8507979 & sine \\
LP 426-35 & M3.5V & TIC 197247983 & - & \\
LP 737-14 & M3.5V & TIC 335628483 & - & \\
BD+16 2708 & M3V & TIC 258105174 & - & \\
2MASS J18535530+4310389 & M3Ve & TIC 164529625 & KIC 7505644 & sine \\
2MASS J18592696+4548446 & M3Ve & TIC 164784762 & KIC 9328653 & sine \\
2MASS J19015564+4134218 & M3Ve & TIC 120576760 & KIC 6187812 & sine \\
CD-43 9546 & M3Ve & TIC 334524122 & - & poly \\
2MASS J22534969-1721358 & M4 & TIC 188586529 & - & \\
LP 873-37 & M4 & TIC 99566892 & - & \\
2MASS J19150930+5101139 & M4.5V & TIC 299089441 & KIC 12302994 & \\
2MASS J19573917+4554182 & M4.5V & TIC 268711231 & KIC 9426508 & sine \\
UCAC4 683-069625 & M4.5V & TIC 159171299 & KIC 9705079 & sine \\
2MASS J18432784+4727325 & M4Ve & TIC 123205792 & KIC 10318386 & sine \\
2MASS J18474286+4218039 & M4Ve & TIC 123408865 & KIC 6837702 & sine \\
2MASS J18535193+4327449 & M4Ve & TIC 164529313 & KIC 7734382 & sine \\
2MASS J19045588+3738361 & M4Ve & TIC 120825083 & KIC 2283749 & sine \\
LP 760-3 & M6.5V & - & - & \\
2MASS J19202351+5037161 & M6Ve & TIC 267746625 & KIC 12108566 & sine \\
L 762-51 & dM3.5 & TIC 286942673 & - & \\
GALEX J184242.4+440405 & sdB & TIC 123198279 & KIC 8142623 & sine \\
GALEX J191612.1+474915 & sdB+F/G & TIC 158984345 & KIC 10593239 & sine \\
SDSS J192715.88+380808.2 & sdB+dM & - & KIC 2991403 & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
{
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all stars which where analysed. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, which use the method described in that section). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\caption{Table containing all stars which where analysed. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogue identifiers respectively. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_all_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
@@ -795,3 +349,449 @@ GALEX J191612.1+474915 & sdB+F/G & TIC 158984345 & KIC 10593239 & sine \\
SDSS J192715.88+380808.2 & sdB+dM & - & KIC 2991403 & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
{
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all main-sequence stars of spectral type M for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogue identifiers respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_m_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endhead
\hline
\endfoot
\hline\hline
\endlastfoot
2MASS J18565158+4448162 & M & TIC 164671055 & KIC 8673358 & sine \\
2MASS J18570619+4516101 & M & TIC 164677934 & KIC 8935942 & sine \\
2MASS J18572876+4035369 & M & TIC 120251682 & KIC 5342558 & sine \\
2MASS J19023480+4539052 & M & TIC 352013620 & KIC 9205855 & sine \\
2MASS J19061662+4502422 & M & TIC 158274889 & KIC 8807085 & sine \\
2MASS J19074075+3752413 & M & TIC 121022434 & KIC 2557669 & sine \\
2MASS J19230963+3739397 & M & TIC 122672447 & KIC 2300039 & sine \\
2MASS J19255059+4532219 & M & TIC 159761686 & KIC 9153754 & sine \\
2MASS J19421615+4928069 & M & TIC 27531488 & KIC 11515276 & sine \\
UCAC4 643-073385 & M & TIC 138647610 & KIC 3454793 & sine \\
1RXS J060224.9-163451 & M0 & TIC 95328477 & - & sine \\
V* MY Tau & M0.5e & TIC 348638763 & - & sine \\
WOH S 209 & M0: & TIC 179038379 & - & sine \\
V* HK Aqr & M0Ve & TIC 5656273 & - & sine \\
V* OT Ser & M1.0V & TIC 355793860 & - & sine, poly \\
V* V631 Tau & M1.5 & TIC 348638813 & - & sine \\
2MASS J18563342+4513481 & M1.5V & TIC 164670606 & KIC 8935655 & sine \\
V* FF And & M1Ve+M1Ve & TIC 267802440 & - & sine \\
{[LM84]} 3-13 & M2 & TIC 165124012 & - & sine \\
V* AX Cnc & M2.0 & TIC 175233993 & - & sine, poly \\
1RXS J004211.1-425245 & M2.2 & TIC 80427281 & - & sine \\
2MASS J04133314-5231586 & M2.4 & TIC 219229275 & - & sine \\
G 10-29 & M2.5V & TIC 396951485 & - & sine \\
ASAS J232857-6802.4 & M2.5Ve & TIC 229807000 & - & sine \\
V* V497 Tau & M2.9 & TIC 258032026 & - & sine \\
CD-51 13128 & M2Ve & TIC 140045538 & - & sine \\
UCAC4 698-065839 & M3.0 & TIC 48504458 & KIC 11495571 & sine \\
G 9-11 & M3.0V & TIC 21246336 & - & sine \\
G 209-3 & M3.4 & TIC 28231379 & KIC 10877432 & sine \\
V* LT Tau & M3.5 & TIC 258067389 & - & sine \\
BD-15 6290 & M3.5V & TIC 188580272 & - & sine \\
2MASS J22371494-2622332 & M3.5Ve & TIC 326446019 & - & sine \\
KOI-256 & M3V & TIC 48528261 & KIC 11548140 & sine \\
LAMOST J192817.82+410412.2 & M3V & TIC 137410897 & KIC 5791720 & sine \\
CD-56 1032A & M3Ve & TIC 220433363 & - & sine \\
2MASS J04534379-5836247 & M3e & TIC 220432563 & - & sine \\
1RXS J185504.7+425952 & M4.0V & TIC 164644375 & KIC 7341653 & sine \\
HG 8-80 & M4.0V & TIC 435916078 & - & sine \\
V* EV Lac & M4.0Ve & TIC 154101678 & - & sine \\
2MASS J01275875-6032243 & M4.2 & TIC 237910557 & - & sine \\
G 6-7 & M4.5V & TIC 456938518 & - & sine \\
2MASS J19005766+4428279 & M4Ve & TIC 164889852 & KIC 8416220 & sine \\
CD-56 1032B & M4Ve & TIC 220433364 & - & sine \\
Kepler-1646 & M4Ve & TIC 158552258 & KIC 7350067 & sine \\
2MASS J21484123-4736506 & M5 & TIC 147421845 & - & sine \\
UCAC3 53-724 & M5.5V & TIC 425937691 & - & sine \\
G 205-40 & M5V & TIC 164458193 & KIC 9201463 & sine \\
LP 357-206 & M5e & TIC 14079970 & - & sine \\
V* V692 Tau & M: & TIC 149923415 & - & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
{
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all main-sequence stars of spectral type K for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogue idetifiers respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_k_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endhead
\hline
\endfoot
\hline\hline
\endlastfoot
1RXS J064643.6-770027 & K & TIC 177255827 & - & sine \\
2MASS J19404949+5046469 & K & TIC 27398219 & KIC 12166457 & sine \\
CPD-19 878 & K & TIC 93125144 & - & sine \\
Kepler-693 & K & TIC 237159318 & KIC 5164255 & sine \\
PM J07058-5848 & K & TIC 279615427 & - & sine \\
TYC 1360-957-1 & K & TIC 247117382 & - & sine \\
HD 245924 & K0IV & TIC 19934471 & - & sine \\
CD-26 1578 & K0V & TIC 44797824 & - & sine \\
TYC 553-33-1 & K0V:e & TIC 405405298 & - & sine \\
RX J1925.0+4429 & K1V & TIC 159721038 & KIC 8429280 & sine \\
HD 215341 & K1Ve & TIC 145752454 & - & sine \\
TYC 582-114-1 & K1Ve & TIC 344163180 & - & sine \\
V* LQ Hya & K1Vp & TIC 46907042 & - & sine \\
Kepler-1558 & K2 & TIC 158322085 & KIC 10000941 & sine \\
HD 283750 & K2.5Ve & TIC 125838647 & - & sine \\
CD-52 381 & K2V(e) & TIC 229151691 & - & sine \\
V* V471 Tau & K2V+DA & TIC 456863710 & - & sine \\
Kepler-411 & K3V & TIC 399954349 & KIC 11551692 & sine \\
BD-13 6131 & K3Ve & TIC 437696706 & - & sine \\
V* BY Dra & K4Ve+K7.5Ve & TIC 47579336 & - & sine \\
V* CC Eri & K7V & TIC 142206123 & - & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
{
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all main-sequence stars of spectral type G for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogues respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_g_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endhead
\hline
\endfoot
\hline\hline
\endlastfoot
2MASS J18425375+4345336 & G & TIC 123198563 & KIC 7936748 & sine \\
2MASS J19061691+4654395 & G & TIC 158272786 & KIC 10000509 & sine \\
2MASS J19320792+3933052 & G & TIC 137972488 & KIC 4469481 & sine \\
2MASS J19553242+4737586 & G & TIC 268382866 & KIC 10491422 & sine \\
2MASS J20060991+4417004 & G & TIC 185335830 & KIC 8332459 & sine \\
ATO J285.5682+44.5725 & G & TIC 352012409 & KIC 8481574 & sine \\
BD-08 995 & G & TIC 43472154 & - & sine \\
Kepler-725 & G & TIC 164652841 & KIC 8672910 & sine \\
TYC 4595-107-1 & G & TIC 394030788 & - & sine \\
V* V452 Lyr & G & - & KIC 7742289 & sine \\
BD-01 2318 & G0 & TIC 78234015 & - & sine \\
HD 295290 & G0 & TIC 53417036 & - & sine \\
TYC 3146-672-1 & G2V & TIC 159448893 & KIC 7523785 & sine \\
HD 214261 & G5 & TIC 200501090 & - & sine \\
KOI-644 & G5 & TIC 122138452 & KIC 5356593 & sine \\
HD 23524 & G5V & TIC 428761512 & - & sine \\
V* AG Lep & G5V & TIC 92845906 & - & sine \\
HD 222259A & G6V & TIC 410214986 & - & sine \\
Kepler-605 & G7 & TIC 158423850 & KIC 7595157 & sine, poly \\
HD 180445 & G8V(e) & TIC 97914505 & - & sine \\
HD 220186 & G9Ve & TIC 49619607 & - & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
{
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all main-sequence stars of spectral type F for which flares have been found. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogue identifiers respectively. The fit type column specifies the used fit types which were found to work best for the lightcurves. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_f_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endhead
\hline
\endfoot
\hline\hline
\endlastfoot
Kepler-380 & F & TIC 48132154 & KIC 11121752 & sine \\
KOI-19 & F3/F5V & TIC 123201406 & KIC 7255336 & sine \\
TYC 3557-1501-1 & F6IV & TIC 273043859 & KIC 9724820 & sine \\
Kepler-1084 & F8V & TIC 267749737 & KIC 10857519 & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
{
\centering
\tabcolsep=5pt
\begin{longtable}{lclll}
\caption{Table containing all stars for which either no flares have been found, or which did not match the spectral types M, K, G or F. The first column (Main Identifier) is matched with SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" value for the star. The second column specifies the spectral type of the star according to SIMBAD (with the exception of the stars mentioned in section \ref{sec:data:sptype_identification}, for which the method described in that section has been applied). The TIC and KIC columns represent the TESS and Kepler Input Catalogue identifiers respectively. The list is sorted first by spectral type, and then by main identifier.}
\label{apA:list_of_unused_stars}\\
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Main Identifier} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Sp. Type} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{TIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{KIC} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Fit Type} \\
\hline
\endhead
\hline
\endfoot
\hline\hline
\endlastfoot
HD 225391 & A & TIC 139156518 & KIC 5632093 & sine \\
HD 226712 & A & TIC 171882897 & KIC 5905878 & sine \\
TYC 3125-2237-1 & A & TIC 121274152 & KIC 4641547 & sine \\
HD 187141 & A0 & TIC 360021868 & KIC 6381306 & sine \\
HD 188360 & A0 & TIC 28359846 & KIC 10815604 & sine \\
HD 177982 & A2 & TIC 120821069 & KIC 4995049 & sine \\
HD 225493 & A4V & TIC 184163024 & KIC 5201872 & sine \\
TYC 3551-561-1 & A5IV & TIC 26418553 & KIC 11296464 & sine \\
HD 225333 & A5V & TIC 139037071 & KIC 3458671 & sine \\
AG+46 1529 & A7III & TIC 273380253 & KIC 9604762 & sine \\
TYC 3560-1923-1 & A9IV–V & TIC 271167267 & KIC 10281360 & sine \\
TYC 3565-514-1 & A9V & TIC 27458214 & KIC 11197934 & sine \\
KOI-3818 & B9.5Vn & TIC 159102838 & KIC 6515722 & sine \\
2MASS J18491671+4410445 & F & TIC 123449867 & KIC 8212826 & sine \\
KOI-4698 & F & TIC 159643077 & KIC 10663738 & sine \\
Kepler-1271 & F & TIC 120825510 & KIC 1996180 & sine \\
Kepler-1443 & F & TIC 164525743 & KIC 10057494 & sine \\
Kepler-494 & F & TIC 169176556 & KIC 6305192 & sine \\
TYC 3134-301-1 & F & TIC 137483286 & KIC 3852772 & sine \\
TYC 3557-727-1 & F3/F5V & TIC 273684688 & KIC 9788113 & sine \\
TYC 3140-1658-1 & F5 & TIC 138967825 & KIC 5802601 & sine \\
KOI-44 & F7IV & TIC 239276046 & KIC 8845026 & sine \\
2MASS J18495232+4309276 & G & TIC 123489639 & KIC 7503439 & \\
2MASS J18525868+4530560 & G & TIC 164458315 & KIC 9137611 & sine \\
2MASS J18582492+4446498 & G & TIC 164779298 & KIC 8609289 & sine \\
2MASS J19012927+4104159 & G & TIC 120496415 & KIC 5773205 & sine \\
2MASS J19043346+4427484 & G & TIC 158171605 & KIC 8417863 & sine \\
2MASS J19065549+3937268 & G & TIC 121012476 & KIC 4546541 & sine \\
2MASS J19080680+4450500 & G & TIC 158391683 & KIC 8678334 & sine \\
2MASS J19100183+4257041 & G & TIC 158552191 & KIC 7350021 & sine \\
2MASS J19182441+4439465 & G & TIC 159097797 & KIC 8554173 & sine \\
2MASS J19184939+4418233 & G & TIC 159107064 & KIC 8359762 & sine \\
2MASS J19185028+4633324 & G & TIC 159171504 & KIC 9765670 & sine \\
2MASS J19250540+3734332 & G & TIC 137097085 & KIC 2159377 & sine \\
2MASS J19280249+3911165 & G & TIC 137402956 & KIC 4058829 & sine, poly \\
2MASS J19283146+3837123 & G & TIC 137484235 & KIC 3547283 & sine \\
2MASS J19313155+4628249 & G & TIC 63452929 & KIC 9712781 & sine \\
2MASS J19350077+4608423 & G & TIC 270698467 & KIC 9531002 & sine \\
2MASS J19354814+4118464 & G & TIC 138431713 & KIC 6049426 & sine \\
2MASS J19354900+4623499 & G & TIC 270789534 & KIC 9654338 & sine \\
2MASS J19364457+4403341 & G & TIC 270859571 & KIC 8172597 & sine \\
2MASS J19370439+4626209 & G & TIC 270957778 & KIC 9716208 & sine \\
2MASS J19390861+4046149 & G & TIC 138725759 & KIC 5544024 & sine \\
2MASS J19395042+4622296 & G & TIC 271354512 & KIC 9657062 & sine \\
2MASS J19415575+4522369 & G & TIC 271664690 & KIC 9032578 & sine \\
2MASS J19450785+5108395 & G & TIC 27778260 & KIC 12367153 & sine \\
2MASS J19484658+5002007 & G & TIC 28084005 & KIC 11825619 & sine \\
2MASS J19491761+4638356 & G & TIC 273131067 & KIC 9845711 & sine \\
2MASS J19535154+4211197 & G & TIC 274119294 & KIC 6719122 & sine \\
2MASS J19551628+4145582 & G & TIC 171093514 & KIC 6390935 & sine \\
2MASS J19562459+4408276 & G & TIC 268606798 & KIC 8257716 & sine \\
2MASS J19572618+4520510 & G & TIC 268712881 & KIC 9048032 & sine \\
2MASS J19583564+4352320 & G & TIC 269121724 & KIC 8055957 & sine \\
KOI-1747 & G & TIC 159717069 & KIC 7032421 & sine \\
KOI-2324 & G & TIC 159105557 & KIC 7746958 & poly \\
KOI-5796 & G & TIC 63070665 & KIC 10470779 & sine \\
KOI-5810 & G & TIC 123494489 & KIC 10581308 & sine \\
KOI-5825 & G & TIC 27183790 & KIC 10737437 & sine \\
KOI-5952 & G & TIC 27845077 & KIC 12071775 & sine \\
KOI-741 & G & TIC 272840512 & KIC 10418797 & sine \\
Kepler-1060 & G & TIC 120691237 & KIC 4544907 & \\
Kepler-1198 & G & TIC 158843826 & KIC 8681734 & sine \\
Kepler-1839 & G & TIC 27082730 & KIC 11818607 & sine \\
Kepler-513 & G & TIC 48503953 & KIC 11802615 & sine \\
Kepler-739 & G & TIC 159225155 & KIC 9766437 & \\
UCAC4 640-067417 & G & TIC 122517231 & KIC 2709412 & sine \\
UCAC4 686-075120 & G & TIC 269030397 & KIC 10098932 & sine \\
TYC 3560-458-1 & G0 & TIC 26815845 & KIC 10922836 & sine \\
TYC 3557-1509-1 & G0.5V & TIC 273379797 & KIC 9726613 & sine \\
TYC 3139-951-1 & G0V & TIC 138215507 & KIC 4660797 & sine \\
Kepler-1424 & G1.5Vb & TIC 122706631 & KIC 5096590 & sine \\
KOI-6202 & G1V & TIC 164669854 & KIC 9389245 & sine \\
Kepler-400 & G2V & TIC 122707140 & KIC 5272233 & sine \\
TYC 3131-2137-1 & G2V & TIC 164460243 & KIC 7871914 & sine \\
TYC 3545-2661-1 & G2V & TIC 399827121 & KIC 10850420 & sine \\
HD 183473 & G5 & TIC 63120335 & KIC 7201012 & sine, poly \\
TYC 3550-241-1 & G5 & TIC 299088815 & KIC 12008308 & sine \\
TYC 3562-2088-1 & G5V & TIC 273872314 & KIC 10093680 & sine \\
TYC 3128-2312-1 & G8V & TIC 120686876 & KIC 5944209 & sine \\
2MASS J18524052+4156057 & K & - & KIC 6500181 & sine \\
2MASS J18534407+4208274 & K & - & KIC 6668646 & sine \\
2MASS J18535462+4135227 & K & - & KIC 6183672 & sine \\
2MASS J19004200+3903124 & K & TIC 399794444 & KIC 3935803 & sine \\
2MASS J19082791+4337114 & K & TIC 158389986 & KIC 7879384 & sine \\
2MASS J19324909+4229041 & K & TIC 275495685 & KIC 6953069 & sine \\
ATO J296.1841+42.6311 & K & TIC 272184059 & KIC 7133807 & sine \\
KOI-7449 & K & TIC 279918401 & KIC 11495989 & sine \\
KOI-8047 & K & TIC 290034561 & KIC 11294822 & sine \\
Kepler-1259 & K & TIC 273592350 & KIC 10028535 & sine \\
Kepler-1782 & K & TIC 123202646 & KIC 8142942 & sine \\
Kepler-1856 & K & TIC 27687265 & KIC 12469800 & sine \\
Kepler-1966 & K & TIC 137627194 & KIC 5962262 & sine \\
Kepler-246 & K & TIC 272484980 & KIC 7134976 & sine \\
2MASS J19200703+4335050 & K0V & TIC 159220196 & KIC 7816999 & sine \\
BD+41 3306 & K0V & TIC 394172596 & KIC 6278762 & sine, poly \\
V* V4371 Sgr & K1V & TIC 151839506 & - & poly \\
2MASS J19400800+4923036 & K5 & TIC 27390487 & KIC 11461764 & sine \\
2MASS J18460555+4332131 & M & TIC 123317330 & KIC 7800087 & \\
2MASS J18472701+4348011 & M & TIC 123410529 & KIC 8007234 & sine \\
2MASS J18491356+4619042 & M & TIC 123447780 & KIC 9631548 & sine \\
2MASS J18511354+4227227 & M & TIC 164411695 & KIC 6925256 & sine \\
2MASS J18511902+4837594 & M & TIC 48216443 & KIC 11069034 & sine \\
2MASS J18512069+4846013 & M & TIC 48216303 & KIC 11122350 & sine \\
2MASS J18524238+4828368 & M & TIC 48304549 & KIC 10960823 & sine \\
2MASS J18525314+4818044 & M & TIC 48304703 & KIC 10905192 & sine \\
2MASS J18525455+4634012 & M & TIC 164457389 & KIC 9754582 & sine \\
2MASS J18531060+4050093 & M & TIC 237158804 & KIC 5597695 & sine \\
2MASS J18535987+4741070 & M & TIC 164525174 & KIC 10452840 & sine \\
2MASS J18541728+4305206 & M & TIC 164529739 & KIC 7422811 & sine \\
2MASS J18545269+4107528 & M & TIC 350987684 & KIC 5855808 & sine \\
2MASS J18561787+4457391 & M & TIC 164670879 & KIC 8737443 & sine \\
2MASS J18574689+4115593 & M & TIC 120254207 & KIC 5941226 & sine \\
2MASS J18592859+4351465 & M & TIC 164786997 & KIC 8012943 & sine \\
2MASS J19000393+4109460 & M & TIC 120419969 & KIC 5858361 & sine \\
2MASS J19001025+4045358 & M & TIC 120422710 & KIC 5515142 & sine \\
2MASS J19005916+4400190 & M & TIC 164889286 & KIC 8150479 & sine \\
2MASS J19011064+4206175 & M & TIC 164886887 & KIC 6672948 & sine \\
2MASS J19011256+4152067 & M & TIC 399822429 & KIC 6425989 & sine \\
2MASS J19020142+4110533 & M & TIC 120576193 & KIC 5859365 & sine \\
2MASS J19024516+4429007 & M & TIC 352012319 & KIC 8417053 & \\
2MASS J19030585+4046008 & M & TIC 120579026 & KIC 5516671 & sine \\
2MASS J19033576+3941263 & M & TIC 120684614 & KIC 4544623 & sine \\
2MASS J19034709+4317208 & M & TIC 158166384 & KIC 7592133 & sine \\
2MASS J19035284+4338273 & M & TIC 158165866 & KIC 7877209 & sine \\
2MASS J19041026+4530403 & M & TIC 158172860 & KIC 9142714 & sine \\
2MASS J19053703+4235308 & M & TIC 158218091 & KIC 7018323 & sine \\
2MASS J19061507+5029221 & M & TIC 399825094 & KIC 12004872 & sine \\
2MASS J19063685+4928043 & M & TIC 399825963 & KIC 11498106 & sine \\
2MASS J19064350+5020087 & M & TIC 399825217 & KIC 11955208 & sine \\
2MASS J19064648+4931162 & M & TIC 399825921 & KIC 11550428 & sine \\
2MASS J19081745+3902346 & M & TIC 121085753 & KIC 3940372 & sine \\
2MASS J19083962+4221137 & M & TIC 158388172 & KIC 6849112 & sine \\
2MASS J19085407+4320395 & M & TIC 158423632 & KIC 7670700 & sine \\
2MASS J19103260+4322147 & M & TIC 158551504 & KIC 7671594 & sine \\
2MASS J19104382+4039368 & M & TIC 121329525 & KIC 5435958 & sine \\
2MASS J19110814+4024571 & M & TIC 121333779 & KIC 5262561 & sine \\
2MASS J19114749+4048205 & M & TIC 121461193 & KIC 5608002 & sine \\
2MASS J19130891+5127421 & M & TIC 298961665 & KIC 12505054 & sine \\
2MASS J19135561+4319299 & M & TIC 158725435 & KIC 7673428 & sine \\
2MASS J19141052+4559479 & M & TIC 158787568 & KIC 9396972 & sine \\
2MASS J19143720+4243450 & M & TIC 158795349 & KIC 7190459 & \\
2MASS J19152845+5001374 & M & TIC 299088298 & KIC 11808734 & sine \\
2MASS J19160242+4726491 & M & TIC 158983853 & KIC 10332732 & sine \\
2MASS J19170322+4953087 & M & TIC 299159305 & KIC 11708034 & sine \\
2MASS J19200001+3844383 & M & TIC 122225323 & KIC 3640527 & sine \\
2MASS J19200978+4954168 & M & TIC 267747418 & KIC 11760021 & sine \\
2MASS J19205088+5018194 & M & TIC 406950619 & KIC 11961075 & sine \\
2MASS J19210354+4523201 & M & TIC 159303166 & KIC 9017693 & sine \\
2MASS J19213187+4459115 & M & TIC 159387244 & KIC 8749769 & sine \\
2MASS J19232149+5107053 & M & TIC 417655942 & KIC 12356051 & sine \\
2MASS J19233077+5035350 & M & TIC 417656504 & KIC 12060710 & sine \\
2MASS J19233788+4518061 & M & TIC 159520226 & KIC 9019435 & sine \\
2MASS J19240851+3747169 & M & TIC 122781970 & KIC 2441562 & sine \\
2MASS J19242752+5106364 & M & TIC 350738203 & KIC 12356489 & sine \\
2MASS J19291103+4821243 & M & TIC 424864617 & KIC 10921009 & sine \\
2MASS J19304396+4112528 & M & TIC 137759349 & KIC 5962956 & sine \\
2MASS J19304840+4142454 & M & TIC 137758161 & KIC 6366739 & sine \\
2MASS J19335656+4010546 & M & - & KIC 5016904 & sine, poly \\
2MASS J19343395+4137235 & M & TIC 138222062 & KIC 6290811 & sine \\
2MASS J19353467+3943573 & M & TIC 138436033 & KIC 4662431 & sine \\
2MASS J19353874+4708324 & M & TIC 270790828 & KIC 10146539 & \\
2MASS J19365745+4628121 & M & TIC 270957843 & KIC 9716117 & sine \\
2MASS J19374745+4341098 & M & TIC 271047224 & KIC 7898781 & sine \\
2MASS J19423900+5108356 & M & TIC 27639064 & KIC 12365719 & sine \\
2MASS J19433653+4758149 & M & TIC 27645448 & KIC 10676126 & sine \\
2MASS J19443380+4843497 & M & TIC 27770198 & KIC 11147271 & sine \\
2MASS J19444493+4720327 & M & TIC 272279258 & KIC 10285642 & sine \\
2MASS J19450930+4754591 & M & TIC 27771932 & KIC 10677397 & sine \\
2MASS J19451164+4345265 & M & TIC 272270363 & KIC 7973675 & sine \\
2MASS J19454134+3906345 & M & TIC 184471264 & KIC 4077867 & sine \\
2MASS J19471875+4123248 & M & TIC 239228371 & KIC 6060845 & sine \\
2MASS J19471987+4747258 & M & TIC 272841049 & KIC 10548508 & sine \\
2MASS J19480997+4310160 & M & TIC 272943707 & KIC 7547969 & sine \\
2MASS J19503771+4705359 & M & TIC 273378083 & KIC 10091786 & sine \\
2MASS J19503804+4041450 & M & TIC 169816129 & KIC 5471468 & sine \\
2MASS J19505785+4630250 & M & TIC 273379615 & KIC 9786877 & sine \\
2MASS J19510637+4505045 & M & TIC 273383619 & KIC 8836388 & sine \\
2MASS J19525571+4743328 & M & TIC 273874034 & KIC 10553513 & sine \\
2MASS J19542833+4420425 & M & TIC 268158580 & KIC 8387621 & sine \\
2MASS J19543981+4814406 & M & TIC 264508845 & KIC 10880514 & sine \\
2MASS J19550625+4009192 & M & TIC 171101426 & KIC 5041192 & sine \\
2MASS J19553603+4805356 & M & TIC 416528859 & KIC 10753072 & sine \\
2MASS J19561258+4335485 & M & TIC 268485803 & KIC 7847566 & sine \\
2MASS J19584764+4711122 & M & TIC 269029909 & KIC 10165815 & sine \\
2MASS J20000387+4531405 & M & TIC 239234887 & KIC 9179906 & sine \\
ATO J285.1153+45.7850 & M & TIC 164882037 & KIC 9267818 & sine \\
KOI-1654 & M & TIC 48355200 & KIC 11546211 & sine \\
UCAC4 639-062929 & M & TIC 120963868 & KIC 2284919 & sine \\
UCAC4 651-066418 & M & TIC 120354289 & KIC 4904647 & sine \\
UCAC4 661-082974 & M & TIC 268288304 & KIC 6720765 & sine \\
UCAC4 664-071715 & M & TIC 158430593 & KIC 7104739 & sine \\
UCAC4 668-073165 & M & TIC 158432884 & KIC 7741987 & sine \\
UCAC4 683-066189 & M & TIC 351897570 & KIC 9692206 & sine \\
UCAC4 707-062317 & M & TIC 299097784 & KIC 12403318 & sine \\
Kepler-210 & M0V & TIC 63283780 & KIC 7447200 & poly \\
MCC 428 & M0V & TIC 434136638 & - & \\
HG 7-26 & M1 & TIC 345454031 & - & \\
G 6-33 & M1.5V & TIC 434160946 & - & sine \\
HD 197481 & M1VeBa1 & TIC 441420236 & - & poly \\
2MASS J19412234+5104273 & M2.1 & TIC 27454242 & KIC 12314646 & sine \\
PM J19399+3950 & M2.5 & TIC 138893136 & KIC 4758595 & sine \\
UCAC4 647-065171 & M2.5 & TIC 121215155 & KIC 4142890 & sine \\
LP 474-124 & M2.5V & TIC 348663808 & - & \\
2MASS J19130537+5020559 & M2.5Ve & TIC 298962893 & KIC 11957647 & sine \\
2MASS J19324802+4200580 & M2.7 & TIC 275496670 & KIC 6610837 & sine \\
2MASS J19445931+4812415 & M2.8 & TIC 27772498 & KIC 10872868 & sine \\
2MASS J19183060+4153031 & M3 & TIC 122067236 & KIC 6436291 & sine \\
{[PS78]} 219 & M3+ & TIC 11652986 & - & \\
UCAC4 673-078334 & M3.0Ve & TIC 272272592 & KIC 8507979 & sine \\
LP 426-35 & M3.5V & TIC 197247983 & - & \\
LP 737-14 & M3.5V & TIC 335628483 & - & \\
BD+16 2708 & M3V & TIC 258105174 & - & \\
2MASS J18535530+4310389 & M3Ve & TIC 164529625 & KIC 7505644 & sine \\
2MASS J18592696+4548446 & M3Ve & TIC 164784762 & KIC 9328653 & sine \\
2MASS J19015564+4134218 & M3Ve & TIC 120576760 & KIC 6187812 & sine \\
CD-43 9546 & M3Ve & TIC 334524122 & - & poly \\
2MASS J22534969-1721358 & M4 & TIC 188586529 & - & \\
LP 873-37 & M4 & TIC 99566892 & - & \\
2MASS J19150930+5101139 & M4.5V & TIC 299089441 & KIC 12302994 & \\
2MASS J19573917+4554182 & M4.5V & TIC 268711231 & KIC 9426508 & sine \\
UCAC4 683-069625 & M4.5V & TIC 159171299 & KIC 9705079 & sine \\
2MASS J18432784+4727325 & M4Ve & TIC 123205792 & KIC 10318386 & sine \\
2MASS J18474286+4218039 & M4Ve & TIC 123408865 & KIC 6837702 & sine \\
2MASS J18535193+4327449 & M4Ve & TIC 164529313 & KIC 7734382 & sine \\
2MASS J19045588+3738361 & M4Ve & TIC 120825083 & KIC 2283749 & sine \\
LP 760-3 & M6.5V & - & - & \\
2MASS J19202351+5037161 & M6Ve & TIC 267746625 & KIC 12108566 & sine \\
L 762-51 & dM3.5 & TIC 286942673 & - & \\
GALEX J184242.4+440405 & sdB & TIC 123198279 & KIC 8142623 & sine \\
GALEX J191612.1+474915 & sdB+F/G & TIC 158984345 & KIC 10593239 & sine \\
SDSS J192715.88+380808.2 & sdB+dM & - & KIC 2991403 & sine \\
\end{longtable}
}
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% better algorithms, handle edge cases better, analyse more stars, take kepler/k2 long cadence into consideration for more data, create plots for flare peaks between x and y
In conclusion the only cumulative results which shows a significant spot dependence are those for the G type stars. It shows a significant increase in flares during the phase minimum over the overall flare distribution. The distribution has a similar form to a bell curve. The same goes for the two selected G type stars BD-08 995 and TYC 4595-107-1 which were presented and discussed. The histograms for K dwarfs on the other hand do not have the form of a bell curve. There appears a singular peak in the histogram with 10 bins at the phase minimum, with a few additional narrower peaks in the histogram with 30 bins. This could indicate a dependence of some sort, but a more detailed view at the individual stars is needed. As this category includes V* V471 Tau (close binary system with a white dwarf), similar interactions could happen on other stars. While there is no significant result for a spot dependence of the detected flares on M dwarfs, some individual stars show behaviour which would indicate this. HK Aqr and KOI-256 as examples, but 2MASS J19230963+3739397 also shows an interesting behaviour and should be studied in more detail as it shows most flares at the lightcurve maxima.\\
Overall improvements to the folding algorithms are required to handle edge cases better (e.g. KOI-256) , while not breaking for others. This could either be done automatically, or by setting special parameters for individual stars. Even though the latter would require manual user interaction and checking the edge cases manually. Additionally a common folding epoch for multiple fits files of the same star could be implemented. A good example would be V471 Tau, which showed a consistent spot modulation in some of its TESS lightcurves which differed from its rotational period. Implementing something like this could guarantee that the (in this case) transit of the white dwarf would always be at the same position in the phase, and not "jump" between the center and the edges. Furthermore the energy for the flares could be calculated. For this an improvments for the flare duration algorithm is required though, as it currently is just an estimation and does not account for the longest flare durations. It neither makes a distinction between TESS lightcurves with a 2 minute cadence and the Kepler/K2 short cadence data which has a cadence of 1 minute.\\
Furthermore more stars could be taken into consideration. While the Kepler/K2 missions are complete, the TESS mission is being extended and still observing as of writing. One could also take into account Kepler long cadence data (30 minute cadence), which would not be able to detect shorter duration flares, but is available for a larger amount of stars.
In conclusion the only cumulative results which shows a significant spot dependence are those for G type stars. This distribution shows a significant increase in flares during the phase minimum over the overall flare distribution. The distribution shows a strong similarity to a normal distribution. The same accounts for the two selected G type stars BD-08 995 and TYC 4595-107-1 which were presented and discussed individually. The histograms for K dwarfs on the other hand do not reveal similarities to a normal distribution. There appears a singular peak in the histogram with 10 bins at the phase minimum, with a few additional narrower peaks in the histogram with 30 bins. This could indicate a dependence of some sort, but a more detailed view at the individual stars is needed. As this category includes V* V471 Tau (close binary system with a white dwarf), similar interactions could happen on other stars. While there is no significant result for a spot dependence of the detected flares on M dwarfs, some individual stars show a behaviour similar to G-stars. HK Aqr and KOI-256 are here good examples, whereas 2MASS J19230963+3739397 shows few flares in the minimum but more flares in the maximum of the phasefolded lightcurve.
Overall improvements to the folding algorithms are required to handle edge cases better (e.g. KOI-256) , while not breaking for others. This could either be done automatically, or by setting special parameters for individual stars. Even though the latter would require manual user interaction and checking the edge cases manually. Additionally a common folding epoch for multiple "fits "files of the same star could be implemented. A good example would be V471 Tau, which showed a consistent spot modulation in some of its TESS lightcurves which differed from its rotational period. Implementing something like this could guarantee that the (in this case) transit of the white dwarf would always be at the same position in the phase, and not "jumping" between the center and the edges. Furthermore the energy for the flares could be calculated. To achieve this, improvement of the flare duration algorithm is required though, as it currently makes just an estimation of the flare duration and does not account for the longest flare durations. It neither makes a distinction between TESS lightcurves with a 2 minute cadence and the Kepler/K2 short cadence data which has a cadence of 1 minute.
Furthermore more stars could be taken into consideration. While the Kepler/K2 missions are complete, the TESS mission is being extended and still observing as of writing this thesis. One could also take into account Kepler long cadence data (30 minute cadence), which would not be able to detect shorter duration flares, but being available for a larger amount of stars.
Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-data.tex
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\chapter{Data and Methods}
\label{sec:data}
In this chapter the selection criteria for the data is explained in section \ref{sec:data:data_selection}. Furthermore a detailed description of the algorithm is given in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction}.
In this chapter the selection criteria for the data are explained (section \ref{sec:data:data_selection}). Furthermore a detailed description of the algorithm is given in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction}.
\section{Data selection}
\label{sec:data:data_selection}
This study uses a broad selection of Kepler/K2 and TESS lightcurves, which were downloaded from MAST with the help of the astroquery (\cite{astroquery}) python package. For Kepler and its continuation mission K2 short-cadence data was used. Unlike long-cadence data with a cadence of 30 minutes, this allows the resolution of shorter events too, as the duration of flares can vary between a few seconds to a few hours (\cite{flare_duration1}, ).
The initial dataset was taken from a list of well known flaring stars from \cite{kepler_411_study}, \cite{kepler_411_210_comparison}, \cite{doyle_2018}, \cite{doyle_2019}, \cite{au_mic_flaring_spi} and \cite{flare_occurance_periodicity}. Additionally the dataset of the M to F stars of \cite{althukair_starlist} which can be found at \href{https://github.com/akthukair/AFD}{https://github.com/akthukair/AFD} was parsed to the downloader GUI. Due to not all data being available as short cadence data from Kepler/K2, only a subset of this large sample was added.
This study uses a broad selection of Kepler/K2 and TESS lightcurves (427 for Kepler, 27 for K2, 1579 for TESS), which were downloaded from MAST with the help of the astroquery \citep{astroquery} python package. For Kepler and its continuation mission K2 short-cadence data were used. Unlike long-cadence data with a cadence of 30 minutes, this allows the resolution of shorter events too, as the duration of flares can vary between a few tens of seconds to a few hours \citep{flare_duration1}. The initial dataset was taken from a list of well known flaring stars from \citet{kepler_411_study}, \citet{kepler_411_210_comparison}, \citet{doyle_2018}, \citet{doyle_2019}, \citet{au_mic_flaring_spi} and \citet{flare_occurance_periodicity}. These stars were selected because previous studies revealed that these stars showed detectable flares. This allowed a test of the algorithm described in the next section and a comparison with previous results. Additionally the dataset of M to F stars of \citet{althukair_starlist} which can be found at \href{https://github.com/akthukair/AFD}{https://github.com/akthukair/AFD} was parsed to the downloader GUI. As not all data were available as short cadence data from Kepler/K2, only a subset of this large sample was added. The full list of stars, for which datasets were downloaded and parsed can be found in appendix \ref{chap:list_of_stars} table \ref{apA:list_of_all_stars}.
\section{Data reduction algorithms}
\label{sec:data:data_reduction}
This chapter explains the methods used in this study, split into the algorithms for flare detection and folding lightcurves. Everything, like the GUI discussed in chapter \ref{sec:gui}, was written in python 3 (\cite{10.5555/1593511}). It also makes extensive use of the python packages astropy (\cite{astropy:2018}), numpy (\cite{numpy}), scipy (\cite{scipy}), pandas (\cite{pandas}) and lightkurve (\cite{lightkurve}). The focus of this chapter lays in the description of the method used to create the final output, which is less customizable than the GUI, which exposes most parameters offered in the functions of the lightkurve API. Unless stated otherwise, the default parameters are used. Furthermore for the final output only PDCSAP\_FLUX is used, which is set as the default flux in the lightkurve $LightCurve$ objects after reading the fit file. The methods are the same for both $KeplerLightCurve$ and $TessLightCurve$ subclasses.
This chapter explains the methods used in this study, split into the algorithms for flare detection and folding lightcurves. Everything, like the GUI discussed in chapter \ref{sec:gui}, was written in python 3 \citep{10.5555/1593511}. It also makes extensive use of the python packages astropy \citep{astropy:2018}, numpy \citep{numpy}, scipy \citep{scipy}, pandas \citep{pandas} and lightkurve \citep{lightkurve}. The focus of this chapter lays in the description of the method used to create the final output, which is less customizable than the GUI, which exposes most parameters offered in the functions of the lightkurve API. Unless stated otherwise, the default parameters are used. Furthermore for the final output only PDCSAP\_FLUX is used, which is set as the default flux in the lightkurve $LightCurve$ objects after reading the fit file. The methods are the same for both $KeplerLightCurve$ and $TessLightCurve$ subclasses.
\subsection{Flare detection}
\label{sec:data:data_reduction:flare_detection}
The first step is to normalize the lightcurve. This is done to apply the same thresholds to all files in later steps. An example of this is shown in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_normalize_options} in chapter \ref{sec:gui:data_display}. The normalization is done via the $normalize()$ function of the $LightCurve$ class of the lightkurve api. Afterwards the lightcurves are flattened by called $flatten()$ of the $LightCurve$ objects. The resulting object is then used as the base for the detection of flares. This removes all longterm trends like brightness changes due to spot modulation or similar, while retaining short term events like flares or transits. A similar approach was used by \cite{au_mic_flaring_spi}.\\
The next step is then to call $calculateFlareFitsForLightcurve()$ with the flattened lightcurve as well as the normalized lightcurve as parameters. It returns two lists of dictionaries with the data for the flare peak as well as a fit which is described in the following paragraphs.
It parses the flattened lightcurve with the scipy $find\_peaks$ function. This function returns local maxima, which can be further filtered by their minimum height as well as the minimum distance of datapoints they need to be apart. The minimum distance between points is set to 1 with no minimum required height. Afterwards the found peaks are sorted by height, and the highest 100 are returned. This was found to be a good amount as the most flares per fits file found in this study were around 70 for CD-56 1032A and B.\\
Afterwards each individual peak is checked. For this purpose every datapoint of the normalized flattened lightcurve is subtracted by 1 to move the average from 1 to 0. Additionally the star and end point of the flare are estimated. This is done by checking the datapoints before and after the peak. If it finds that the flux delta is below 0.005 for three consecutive datapoints, it stops, and assumes that the last checked point is the start/end of the flare. In the case it finds an infinite or NaN value (which can happen if there are gaps in the lightcurve data), or it reaches 100 datapoints before/after it will stop. This was found to cover most flares detected and provides enough datapoints for the following steps.\\
Afterwards multiple checks are done. The first checking if the 1 datapoint before the peak, and 1 after the peak are above a threshold of 0.003, or if 2 datapoint after the peak after above the same threshold (which is a similar approach to \cite{kepler_411_study}). Afterwards it is checked if the datapoint at two indices before the peak is larger than the datapoint right before the registered peak. While this eliminates the positive detection of 2 flares in they case of them appearing very shortly after another, it was by visual inspection found to eliminate more false positives. Shortly after another appearing flares are still allowed, if the criteria are met, and theres atleast one more datapoint between the peaks. Then a fit of the flare is generated. The first half of the fit, till the peak, is that of a gaussian function, with the second half being an exponential decay (similar approach to \cite{au_mic_flaring_spi} and \cite{doyle_2018}). Then the residual sum of squares (RSS) between the fit and the flux of the flare, as well as the total sum of squares (TSS) are calculated. Afterwards R-squared is calculated, and if it is below 0.8, the flare is rejected as the flare would not have the typical form. In the last step, the location of the flare in the normalized and flattened lightcurve are compared. This step has been introduced, as in some rare cases the flattening algorithm can produce a large spike (values of 10 or higher when normalized).
The first step is to normalize the lightcurve. This is done to apply the same thresholds to all files in later steps. An example of this is shown in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_normalize_options} in chapter \ref{sec:gui:data_display}. The normalization is done via the $normalize()$ function of the $LightCurve$ class of the lightkurve api. Afterwards the lightcurves are flattened by the function $flatten()$ of the $LightCurve$ objects. The resulting object is then used as the base for the detection of flares. This removes all longterm trends like brightness changes due to spot modulation or similar, while retaining short term events like flares or transits. A similar approach was used by \citet{au_mic_flaring_spi}.
The next step is then to call $calculateFlareFitsForLightcurve()$ with the flattened lightcurve as well as the normalized lightcurve as parameters. It returns two lists of python dictionaries with the data for the flare peak as well as a fit which is described in the following paragraphs.
It parses the flattened lightcurve with the scipy $find\_peaks$ function. This function returns local maxima, which can be further filtered by their minimum height (optional) as well as the minimum distance of datapoints (optional). Afterwards the found peaks are sorted by height, and the highest 100 are returned. This was found to be a good amount as the largest number of flares per "fits" file found in this study were around 70 for CD-56 1032A and B.
Afterwards each individual peak is checked. The first step is to estimate a flare starting and end point. This is done by checking the datapoints before and after the peak. If it finds that the flux difference is below 0.005 for three consecutive datapoints, it stops, and assumes that the last checked point is the start/end of the flare. In the case it finds an infinite or NaN value (which can happen if there are gaps in the lightcurve data), or it reaches 100 datapoints before/after it will stop. This was found to cover most flares detected and provides a sufficient number of datapoints for the following steps.
Afterwards multiple checks are done. It first checks if the datapoints right before and after the peak are above a threshold of 0.003 (0.3\%) above the mean flattened flux, or if the two datapoints right after the peak are above that threshold (which is a similar approach to \citet{kepler_411_study}). Afterwards it is checked if the datapoint at two indices before the peak is larger than the datapoint right before the registered peak. This eliminates possible false positives which were found by manually inspecting previously found events, but could not be guaranteed to be two seperate events. In such cases it will only count one flare. Then the flare lightcurve is fitted. For the impulsive phase, a gaussian function is used and for the gradual phase an exponential function is used to account for the exponential decay in flare lightcurves (similar approach to \citet{au_mic_flaring_spi} and \citet{doyle_2018}). Then the residual sum of squares (RSS) between the fit and the flux of the flare, as well as the total sum of squares (TSS) are calculated. Afterwards R-squared is calculated, and if it is below 0.8, the flare is rejected as the flare would not have the typical form. In the last step, the locations of the flare in the normalized and flattened lightcurve are compared. This step has been introduced, as in some rare cases the flattening algorithm can produce a large artificial spike (values of 10 or higher when normalized).
\subsection{Lightcurve folding}
\label{sec:data:data_reduction:lightcurve_folding}
This section will mainly describe how the $getOptimizedFold()$ function works. It takes the normalized lightcurve as well as a fit type as parameters. The fit type can either be "sine" for a sine fit, "poly" for a polynomlial fit, or "linear" for a linear fit. The default value is "sine", but can be changed for each individual star in the GUI.
The function at first generates two periodograms with the lightkurve function $to\_periodogram$. The first one uses the lombscargle algorithm, while the second one uses the boxleastsquares algorithm. Afterwards the 4 highest peaks of each are taken and converted into periods (unit in days).
Then each period found by each algorithm is compared with the periods found by the other, and in the case of a match (absolute value of the difference between the values of the two algorithms is smaller than 5\% of the larger of the two periods) this is now used as the rotational period as well as spot modulation period. If it does not find a match, it uses the period corresponding to the highest peak in the lombscargle periodogram.
Afterwards it gets the epoch time to the first minimum in the lightcurve using numpys $argrelextrema$ function. In the following loop, which is repeated up to 30 times, it will fold the lightcurve (using the lightkurve $fold$ function) with the period set to the spot modulation, and the epoch set to the first minima in the lightcurve. Then a fit is calculated using the prefered fit method (with a polynomial fit fallback for sine fit prefered and vice versa). If the resulting fit should have two maxima, and they are further away from the edges than 10\% of the used period, the algorithm checks if there is a signal for half the used period in any of the two periodograms. If this is the case, it will now use this as the period for spot modulation. A new fold for the rotational period is then generated. Afterwards it checks the location of the minimum of the spot modulation folded lightcurve. If the minimum is within 1\% of half the phase it will stop. If not, it will shifts the epoch by the difference of the minimum to 0, which is the center of the folded lightcurves phase, and repeat the folding process.\\
The function then returns the rotational period, the spot modulation period, the periods found by both periodograms as well as the folded lightcurve, the corresponding phase and the fit and fit type ("sine", "poly" or "linear") as well as the epoch. If the spot modulation differs from the rotational period found, it will also return the folded lightcurve, phase, fit and fit type of the rotational period folded lightcurve. The last returned value is "isValid", which is set to false if the algorithm should not break out of the loop in less than 30 tries.
This section mainly describes how the $getOptimizedFold()$ function works. This function was written to optimize the lightcurve folding, to improve accuracy for the folding and lightcurve fitting process. It uses the normalized lightcurve as well as the preferred fitting function type (see chapter \ref{sec:gui:data_display}) as parameters. The fit type can either be "sine" for a sine fit, "poly" for a polynomlial fit, or "linear" for a linear fit. The default value is "sine", but can be changed for each individual star in the GUI. The function at first generates two periodograms with the $to\_periodogram$ function from the lightkurve python package. The first one uses the Lomb-Scargle algorithm, while the second one uses the box-least-squares algorithm. Afterwards the four highest peaks of each are taken and converted into periods (unit in days). Then each period found by each algorithm is compared with the periods found by the other, and in the case of a match (absolute value of the difference between the values of the two algorithms is smaller than 5\% of the larger of the two periods) this is now used as the rotational period as well as the spot modulation period. If it does not find a match, it uses the period corresponding to the highest peak in the Lomb-Scargle periodogram. Afterwards it calculates the epoch time to the first minimum in the lightcurve using numpys $argrelextrema$ function. In the following loop, which is repeated up to 30 times, the lightcurve is folded (using the lightkurve $fold$ function) with the spot modulation period, and the epoch set to the first minima in the lightcurve. Then a fit is performed using the prefered fitting method. If the fitting process fails for the preferred fitting type, and it was set to "sine", it will fall back to "poly" (polynomial fit), and vice versa. If the resulting fit has two maxima, and they are further away from the edges than 10\% of the used period, the algorithm checks if there is a signal for half the used period in any of the two periodograms. If this is the case, it will use this as the period for spot modulation. It will save the current folded lightcurve as folded by rotational period, and generate a new folded lightcurve with the newly found spot modulation period. Afterwards it checks the location of the minimum of the spot modulation folded lightcurve. If the minimum is within 1\% of half the phase it will stop. If not, it will shift the epoch by the difference of the minimum to zero, which is the center of the folded lightcurve phase, and repeat the folding process.
\section{Spectral type identification}
The function then returns the rotational period, the spot modulation period, the periods found by both periodograms as well as the folded lightcurve, the corresponding phase and the fit and fit type ("sine", "poly" or "linear") as well as the epoch. If the spot modulation differs from the found rotational period, it will also return the folded lightcurve, phase, fit and fit type of the rotational period folded lightcurve. The last returned value is "isValid", which is set to false if the algorithm does not find a fit with its minimum at half the phase for the spot modulation period folded lightcurve within 30 iterations.
\section{Spectral type classification}
\label{sec:data:sptype_identification}
After the initial download and cross checking with SIMBAD, not all stars had a spectral type assigned. For these stars magnitudes in various different bands was known though. The stars which have their magnitudes known atleast in the B and V bands are found in table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_bv}, while the stars which had their magnitudes known only in the J, H and C bands are in table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_jhc}.
Using $B-V$ (as well as further magnitude differences, if available) have been compared to the table at \cite{spectral_type_color_table} (\href{https://www.stsci.edu/~inr/intrins.html}{https://www.stsci.edu/~inr/intrins.html}). This allowed for a rough classification of the stars in table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_bv}. Additionally, and to classify the stars in table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_jhc}, the effective temperature was taken into account from the TESS Input Catalogue (\cite{revised_tess_input_catalogue}) from Vizier (\cite{vizier}). The classification table for spectral types based on effective temperature has been taken from \cite{harvard_spectral_types_teff} (\href{https://lweb.cfa.harvard.edu/~pberlind/atlas/htmls/note.html}{https://lweb.cfa.harvard.edu/~pberlind/atlas/htmls/note.html}).\\
The final spectral type for the stars can be found in table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_final_output}. If the base spectral type calculated from the effective temperature and the magnitude differences in multiple different color bands is identical, it will use that spectral type as final. In the case of those differing, like for BD-08 995, which was found to be an early K type star (K0) by the intrinsic color method but is a G type star based on the effective temperature, the latter is prefered. For the four stars from table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_jhc} which did not provide magnitudes in the optical range, the spectral type based on the effective temperature is taken as final.
After the initial download and cross checking with SIMBAD, not all stars had a spectral type assigned. For these stars magnitudes in different wavelength bands were available. The stars with known magnitudes at least in the B and V bands are given in table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_bv}, while the stars with only J, H and K bands are given in table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_jhk}. The B-V color index as well as other color indices (if available) have been compared to the table in \citet{spectral_type_color_table} (\href{https://www.stsci.edu/~inr/intrins.html}{https://www.stsci.edu/\textasciitilde{}inr/intrins.html}). This allowed a rough classification of the stars in table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_bv}. Additionally, also the effective temperature was taken into account from the TESS Input Catalogue \citep{revised_tess_input_catalogue} from Vizier \citep{vizier}. The classification table for spectral types based on effective temperature has been taken from \citet{harvard_spectral_types_teff} (\href{https://lweb.cfa.harvard.edu/~pberlind/atlas/htmls/note.html}{https://lweb.cfa.harvard.edu/\textasciitilde{}pberlind/atlas/htmls/note.html}).
The final spectral type for the stars can be found in table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_final_output}. If the spectral type calculated from the effective temperature and the indices is identical, it will use that spectral type as final. In the case of those differing, like for BD-08 995, which was found to be an early K type star (K0) by the intrinsic color method but being a G type star based on the effective temperature, the latter is prefered. For the four stars from table \ref{tab:unknown_sptypes_jhk} which have no B or V measurements, the spectral type based on the effective temperature is used.
\begin{table}
\caption{List of stars with no spectral type entry on SIMBAD, but available magnitudes in the B and V bands. Main Identifier according to SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" property, as well as TESS Input Catalogue and Kepler Input Catalogue numbers.}
\centering
\caption{List of stars with no spectral type entry in SIMBAD, but available magnitudes in the B and V bands. Main Identifier according to SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" property, as well as TESS Input Catalogue and Kepler Input Catalogue numbers are given.}
\label{tab:unknown_sptypes_bv}
\begin{tabular}{lll}
\hline
@@ -58,10 +59,10 @@ The final spectral type for the stars can be found in table \ref{tab:unknown_spt
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{table}
\caption{List of stars with no spectral type entry on SIMBAD, but available magnitudes in the J, H and C bands. Main Identifier according to SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" property, as well as TESS Input Catalogue and Kepler Input Catalogue numbers.}
\label{tab:unknown_sptypes_jhc}
\centering
\caption{List of stars with no spectral type entry in SIMBAD, but available magnitudes in the J, H and K bands. Main Identifier according to SIMBADs "MAIN\_ID" property (2MASS), as well as TESS Input Catalogue and Kepler Input Catalogue numbers are given.}
\label{tab:unknown_sptypes_jhk}
\begin{tabular}{lll}
\hline
Main Identifier & TIC & KIC \\
@@ -76,11 +77,12 @@ The final spectral type for the stars can be found in table \ref{tab:unknown_spt
\begin{landscape}
\begin{table}
\caption{Final estimated spectral types. Main Identifier shows the MAIN\_ID property for the star on SIMBAD. The column SIMBAD B-V contains the value of B-V with the respective magnitudes taken from SIMBAD. The columns TIC T\textsubscript{eff}, MASS and Radius contain the effective temperature, mass and radius for the star taken from the TESS Input Catalogue from Vizier. The column Spectral Type (B-V) contains the estimated spectral type based on \cite{spectral_type_color_table}, while the column Spectral Type (T\textsubscript{eff}) contains the spectral type based on the effective temperature from \cite{harvard_spectral_types_teff}. The last column contains the spectral type which is estimated and used in this study.}
\centering
\caption{Final determined spectral types. Main Identifier taken from SIMBAD. The column B-V contains the value of B-V calculated from the respective magnitudes taken from SIMBAD. The columns T\textsubscript{eff}, Mass and Radius contain the effective temperature, mass and radius for the star taken from the TESS Input Catalogue from Vizier. The column Spectral Type (B-V) contains the determined spectral type based on \citet{spectral_type_color_table}, while the column Spectral Type (T\textsubscript{eff}) contains the spectral type based on the effective temperature from \citet{harvard_spectral_types_teff}. The last column contains the spectral type which is used in this study.}
\label{tab:unknown_sptypes_final_output}
\begin{tabular}{lccccccc}
\hline
Main Identifier & SIMBAD B-V & TIC T\textsubscript{eff} & TIC Mass & TIC Radius & Spectral Type (B-V) & Spectral Type (T\textsubscript{eff}) & Final Spectral Type \\
Main Identifier & B-V & T\textsubscript{eff} & Mass & Radius & Spectral Type (B-V) & Spectral Type (T\textsubscript{eff}) & Final Spectral Type \\
& & [$K$] & [$M_\odot$] & [$R_\odot$ ]& & & \\
\hline\hline
1RXS J064643.6-770027 & 1.320000 & 4082 & 0.640 & 0.654 & K7.0 & K & K \\
Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-discussion.tex
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@@ -1,61 +1,39 @@
\chapter{Discussion \label{sec:discussion}}
The flare to spot correlation in this study is based on a large sample of known active stars, which were observed by the Kepler/K2 and TESS missions. To also catch shorter events, short-cadence data was used for Kepler/K2. Not all stars analysed were used though to generate the plots in the results section (see table \ref{apA:list_of_unused_stars}). This list contains stars that either did not match the spectral types which were analysed in this study (e.g. some A type stars from the list of stars by \cite{althukair_starlist}), could not produce valid fits (reached 30 tries during the fit optimization for folded lightcurves) or no consistent period was found. The full list of stars analyzed can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_all_stars}.\\
The analysis was done with a self written python program (discussed in chapter \ref{sec:gui}). The reason a GUI was made was for ease of management of the data (e.g. easily looking up parameters of a star), as well as checking individual results in a fast and easy way during the development stage. This also allowed to quickly compare the outputs of the algorithms between different fits files of the same star as well as between different stars fits files. The algorithms are based on the approaches of \cite{kepler_411_study}, \cite{au_mic_flaring_spi} and \cite{doyle_2018}. The thresholds described in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:flare_detection} for the flare detection algorithm have been set by trial and visual inspection of the lightcurves of multiple stars/fits files. The last step for flare detection, which was introduced to prevent failures of the flattening algorithm to be detected as (massive) flares, was introduced due to the results for the stars 2MASS J19033576+3941263 (TESS sectors 40, 41 and 53), 2MASS J19370439+4626209 (TESS sector 54) and V* V452 Lyr (Kepler target table ID 55). 2MASS J19033576+3941263, also known by KOI-6423 or KIC 4544623 shows regular dips in its lightcurve, which could indicate one or multiple transiting planets. It has currently been marked as a false positive candidate in the NASA Exoplanet Archive (\cite{koidr25}, \href{https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/overview/KOI-6423}{https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/overview/KOI-6423}). The TESS lightcurves for KOI-6423 can be found in appendix \ref{apC} in figures \ref{apC:fig:KOI-6423-TESS_lightcurves1} and \ref{apC:fig:KOI-6423-TESS_lightcurves2}. While there are no noteworthy dips upon manual inspection in the lightcurve for 2MASS J19370439+4626209, flattening it still generates peaks of over 800 on a normalized lightcurve. V* V452 Lyr was observed in multiple Kepler target table IDs, with the only detected flares (4 total) in target table ID 55. The lightcurve itself is very flat (see figure \ref{apC:fig:V452Lyr-Kepler_lightcurves} in appendix \ref{apC}). Further to notice, the flare detection can only distinguish high and low flare peaks, but it does not calculate the flare energy.\\
While the folding algorithm (see section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:lightcurve_folding}) works on most stars/fits files, it has its limitations in edge cases like V* HK Aqr or KOI-256 as described in sections \ref{results:hk_aqr} and \ref{results:koi_256}. It is set to check for an additional periodicity signal if the fit for the folded lightcurve has two peaks which are further than 10\% of the total phase from the edge. While it is expected to find two peaks when folding and fitting a sine function due to marging of error of the fitting parameters, there has to be set a limit for when to search for additional periodicity. A well working (and near perfect) example is V471 Tau. It shows additional periodicity in the TESS lightcurves 42, 32 and 44 (see figure \ref{apB:fig:V471Tau-TESS_foldedLC} in appendix \ref{chap:apB}), but not 70 and 71. Additionally the shift by the difference of the fit minimum to the (currently used) epoch for the fold is necessary to generate reliable results, as otherwise it has been found the minimum of the fit/folded lightcurve can vary by up to \textasciitilde25\% depending on which first minimum is detected in the lightcurve.\\\\
The investigation of a flare to spot relation in this study is based on a large sample of known active stars, which were observed by the Kepler/K2 and TESS missions. To also catch shorter events, short-cadence data was used for Kepler/K2. Not all stars which have been analysed were used though to generate the plots in the results section (see table \ref{apA:list_of_unused_stars}). This list contains stars that either did not match the spectral types which were analysed in this study (e.g. some A type stars from the list of stars by \citet{althukair_starlist}), could not produce valid fits (reached 30 iterations during the fit optimization for folded lightcurves) or no consistent period was found. The full list of stars analyzed can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_all_stars}.
Out of a total of \textasciitilde160 M dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 49 stars. This could be due to a not sensitive enough algorithm or instruments, too noisy data or it could be that there were just no flares during the observation time. For the remaining 49 stars, a total of \textasciitilde3500 flares were detected. Using all available flares, there was no significant spot dependency detected in the histogram with 10 bins. In the third bin there were \textasciitilde50 flares less detected compared to other bins. This bin is located in the transition from the phase maxima to minima. While not being significant, the 6th bin has the most flares detected, which would be at the phase minimum. This could show a possible dependency with more available data. The data also contains the detected flares from KOI-256 and V* HK Aqr, which were not folded correctly. Manually comparing the results for V* HK Aqr (figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period}), as well as the folded lightcurves shows that for TESS sector 29 the detected minimum ($\pm$ quarter of the phase) the amount of detected flares flipped. While more flares should be counted in the minimum (see figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC_Period}) compared to the maximum (see figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC}), the opposite is the case. Similarly for TESS sector 42. Overall these changes make the spot dependence of flares on V* HK Aqr more clear, as the histogram (10 bins) with only the rotational period folded lightcurves indicates a spot dependency. There are significantly more flares counted around the minimum compared to the phase maximum. The flares with the highest peaks V* HK Aqr were also detected during the phase minimum in TESS sector 29 with a normalized peak of up to 1.8. KOI-256 shows a similar behaviour, showing a clear spot dependence when using only period folded lightcurves for the histogram, while having more spread out peaks around the phase minimum when using all spot modulation folded lightcurves.\\
2MASS J19230963+3739397 on the other hand is a star, which shows an inverted spot dependency. This could be an indication that similarly to what \cite{kepler_411_210_comparison} found, the spot area is not the only important parameter.\\
Limiting the flare by maximum flare peak height indicates a dependency of flares on spots. While no flare energies were calculated in this study, this could be parameters to look at in the future. Limiting the flare peak to 1\% above the flux shows a higher count in the phase maxima compared to he phase minima. The same dip as with all flares can be seen here already too. Increasing the flare peak limit to 5\% above the flux shows a nearly identical histogram (in form) to the one with all flares. A noteworthy difference here is the peak in the bin at the phase minimum at $1 \pi$. \cite{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler} found an increase of flares in M and K dwarfs at phase minimum with flares which had a flux increase at their peaks between 1\% and 5\%. The differences could be due to a different set of stars and flare detection methods.
\section{Analysis}
% 14 - 10; 10 - 14
%M dwarfs, all data, no significant dependency of flare appearance on phase using 10 bins.
%30 bins -> either 2 dips during the transition minima <-> maxima or increase of flare occurance during minima and maxima.
%Looking at stronger flares only (min 1.25/1.5 flare peak) peaks during minima, stronger peak during phase maxima, in both 10 and 30 bin histograms.
%Limiting to max 1.01, makes dip (compared to all data) clearer. Generally more flares during maxima than minima.
%Limit to max 1.05, nearly identical histograms to all data. (different result to \cite{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler})
%\\\\
The analysis was done with a self written python program (discussed in chapter \ref{sec:gui}). The reason for developing a GUI was to ease the management of the data (e.g. easily looking up parameters of a star), as well as checking individual results in a fast and easy way during the development stage. This also allowed to quickly compare the outputs of the algorithms between different "fits" files of the same star as well as between different stars. The algorithms are based on the approaches of \citet{kepler_411_study}, \citet{au_mic_flaring_spi} and \citet{doyle_2018}. The thresholds described in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:flare_detection} for the flare detection algorithm have been set by trial and visual inspection of the lightcurves of multiple stars/"fits" files. The last step of the flare detection algorithm, as discussed in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:flare_detection}, was implemented to prevent failures due to the flattening algorithm massively inverting dips in the lightcurves. This happened for the lightcurves of 2MASS J19033576+3941263 (TESS sectors 40, 41 and 53), 2MASS J19370439+4626209 (TESS sector 54) and V* V452 Lyr (Kepler target table ID 55). 2MASS J19033576+3941263, also known as KOI-6423 or KIC 4544623 shows regular dips in its lightcurve, which could indicate one or multiple transiting planets. It has currently been marked as a false positive candidate in the NASA Exoplanet Archive\footnote{\href{https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/overview/KOI-6423}{https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/overview/KOI-6423}} \citep{koidr25}. The TESS lightcurves for KOI-6423 can be found in appendix \ref{apC} in figures \ref{apC:fig:KOI-6423-TESS_lightcurves1} and \ref{apC:fig:KOI-6423-TESS_lightcurves2}. While there are no noteworthy dips upon manual inspection in the lightcurve for 2MASS J19370439+4626209, flattening still generates peaks with values of over 800 on a normalized lightcurve. V* V452 Lyr was observed in multiple Kepler target table IDs, with the only detected flares (4 total) in target table ID 55. The lightcurve itself is very flat (see figure \ref{apC:fig:V452Lyr-Kepler_lightcurves} in appendix \ref{apC}). Further to notice, the flare detection can only distinguish between high and low flare peaks, but it does not calculate the flare energy. But we can say that all flares detected on G type stars in broad-band photometry such as Kepler/K2 and TESS are superflares, as the lowest detectable flare peak by this algorithm is 1.003, and \citet{solar_like_superflares}, using Kepler data, found that an increase of 0.1\% in flux (flare peak of 1.001) is enough for those flares to be categorized as superflares.
Out of a total of \textasciitilde40 K dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 37 stars. This could be due to a not sensitive enough algorithm or instruments, too noisy data or it could be that there were just no flares during the observation time. Overall the results for the flare distribution on K dwarfs is similar to those of M dwarfs. With the exception of the bin (bins for the histogram with 30 bins) around the phase minimum. This bin shows a significantly increased flare count. One of the, but not the sole cause for this is V* V471 Tau (see section \ref{results:v471_tau}), which is in close orbit with a white dwarf (\cite{v471tau_revised}, \cite{V471tau_magnetic_activity}). This can lead to magnetic interactions between the K dwarf and the white dwarf (\cite{V471tau_magnetic_activity}), which could lead to the increased flarecount seen.\\
Limiting the flare peaks to greater than 5\% of the flux shows two peaks around the center bin, with one higher bin being at the maximum at phase $0 \pi$. While the two peaks around the phase minimum could indicate a dependency on spots, it is not the only relevant bin found.
Limiting the flare peaks to a maximum of 1\% above the flux shows an interesting pattern. There is a larger count of flares found during the phase minimum, but also during the phase maximum, while less flares have been detected in the transition between phase miminum/maximum. Increasing the allowed flare peak to 5\% above the flux shows a similar pattern, but the gaps between peaks/dips closes and is already very similar to the histogram with all flares.
While the folding algorithm (see section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:lightcurve_folding}) works on most stars/"fits" files, it has its limitations in edge cases like V* HK Aqr or KOI-256 as described in sections \ref{results:hk_aqr} and \ref{results:koi_256}. It is set to check for an additional periodicity signal if the fit for the folded lightcurve has two peaks which are further away than 10\% of the total phase from the edge. While it is expected to find two peaks when folding and fitting a sine function due to marging of error of the fitting parameters, there has to be set a limit for when to search for additional periodicity. A well working (and near perfect) example is V471 Tau. It shows additional periodicity in the TESS lightcurves 42, 32 and 44 (see figure \ref{apB:fig:V471Tau-TESS_foldedLC} in appendix \ref{chap:apB}), but not in 70 and 71. Additionally the shift by the difference of the fit minimum to the (currently used) epoch for the fold is necessary to generate reliable results, as otherwise it has been found that the minimum of the fit/folded lightcurve can vary by up to \textasciitilde25\% depending on which first minimum is detected in the lightcurve.
% K dwarfs, all data, siginificant peak at phase minimum, peak dominated by V471 Tau (discussed later). Slightly more flares from maximum to minimum than minimum to maximum in 10 bins. 30 bins larger dips but also larger peaks in second half of phase compared to first half.
% limiting to min 1.05 -> three peaks, dip after maximum and on at phase 1 $\pi$. gradual decrease after minimum. V471 Taus peaks at right before and right after phase minimum.
% limiting to <1.01 and 1.05, makes histogram look more and more like with all data, similarly to \cite{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler} peak in center (compared to their M/K plot), but additionally also peak at phase maximum.
% max 1.05 already most flares, very similar to with all data.
\section{Flares and superflares on M-F stars and their spot dependence}
Out of a total of \textasciitilde80 G dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 21 stars. This could be due to a not sensitive enough algorithm or instruments, too noisy data or it could be that there were just no flares during the observation time. Most of the flares detected had a peak below 5\% above the flux, but as \cite{solar_like_superflares} found, flares with a flux increase between 0.1 to 1\% would already be categorized as superflares. For the flares found in this study for G type stars, there appears to be a spot dependency, as the flare count peaks around the phase minimum. Unlike the other results, there is a gradual fall off to each sides till the phase maximum is reached.\\
Limiting the flare peaks to a minimum of 1.05 shows three major peaks. The highest being at the phase minimum, while the other two are in the transition between maximum and miminum and minimum and maximum. This does not indicate a pure spot dependency, and a more detailed look at the individual events is necessary.\\
BD-08 995, which seems to be a late G type star, reflects this trend well. It shows the same bell curve style histogram. Additionally though it also shows a slight increase in flares around the phase maximum. Its highest flare peak was detected around the phase maximum though. The maximum flare count for TYC 4595-107-1 on the other hand is slightly offset to before the phase minimum. It also shows a slight increase of flares around the maximum. Its highest flare peak was detected in the same bin as the highest flare count.
Out of a total of \textasciitilde160 M dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 49 stars. This could be due to the algorithm or instruments being possibly not sufficiently sensitive, too noisy data or it could be that there were simply no flares during the observations. For the remaining 49 stars, a total of \textasciitilde3500 flares was detected. Using all available flares, there was no significant spot dependency detected in the histogram with 10 bins. In the third bin at phase $0.5 \pi$ there were \textasciitilde50 flares less detected compared to other bins. This bin is located in the transition from the phase maxima to minima. While not being significant, the 6th bin around phase $1.1 \pi$ has the most flares detected, and is located at the phase minimum. This could show a possible dependency with more available data, similarly to what was found for K type dwarfs. The data also contain the detected flares from KOI-256 and V* HK Aqr, which were not folded correctly. Manually comparing the results for V* HK Aqr (figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period}), the folded lightcurves show that for TESS sector 29 the detected minimum ($\pm$ a quarter of the phase) the amount of detected flares flipped. While more flares should be counted in the minimum (see figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC_Period}) compared to the maximum (see figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC}), the opposite is the case. Similarly for TESS sector 42. Overall these changes make the spot dependence of flares on V* HK Aqr more clear, as the histogram (10 bins) with only the rotational period folded lightcurves indicates a spot dependency. There are significantly more flares counted around the minimum compared to the phase maximum. The flares with the highest peaks on V* HK Aqr were also detected during the phase minimum in TESS sector 29 with a normalized peak of up to 1.8. KOI-256 shows a similar behaviour, revealing a clear spot dependence when using only period folded lightcurves for the histogram, while having more spread out peaks around the phase minimum when using all spot modulation folded lightcurves.
% G dwarfs, significant results, increase of flare appearance during phase minimum. Most flares are <1.05 (flares on solar like stars that increase brightness by 0.1\% to 1\% already superflares, \cite{solar_like_superflares}) -> most/all detected flares superflares. Overall dependency on phase/spot appearance.
% Limiting to flares >1.05 -> flares during minima and transitions between minima <-> maxima, increasing bins -> more data would be required.
2MASS J19230963+3739397 on the other hand is a star, which shows an inverted spot dependency. This could be an indication that similarly to what \citet{kepler_411_210_comparison} found, the spot area is not the only important parameter.
Out of a total of \textasciitilde13 F dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 4 stars. This could be due to a not sensitive enough algorithm or instruments, too noisy data or it could be that there were just no flares during the observation time. While all flares detected are centered around the phase minimum, the total of 5 flares detected is not a large enough sample to come to a conclusion if there exists a flare spot dependency for these stars.
Limiting the flare by maximum flare peak indicates a dependency of flares on spots, which can be seen in figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak} to \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}. While no flare energies were calculated in this study, this could be parameters to look at in the future. Limiting the flare peaks to a maximum of 1.01 shows a higher count in the phase maxima compared to the phase minima. The same dip as with all flares can be seen here already too. Increasing the flare peak limit to 1.05 shows a nearly identical histogram to the one with all flares. A noteworthy difference here is the peak in the bin at the phase minimum at $1 \pi$. \citet{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler} found an increase of flares in M and K dwarfs at phase minimum with flares which had a flux increase at their peaks between 1\% and 5\%. The differences could be due to a different set of stars and flare detection methods.
% For F dwarfs, overall too little data, but the not siginificant amount detected all during phase minimum, could be similar to G dwarfs?
Out of a total of \textasciitilde40 K dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 21 stars. This could be due to the algorithm or instruments being possibly not sufficiently sensitive, too noisy data or it could be that there were simply no flares during the observations. Overall the results for the flare distribution of K dwarfs is similar to those of M dwarfs, with the exception of the bin (bins for the histogram with 30 bins) around the phase minimum. This bin shows a significantly increased flare count. One of the causes for this, but not the sole one, is V* V471 Tau (see section \ref{results:v471_tau}), which is in close orbit with a white dwarf \citep{v471tau_revised,V471tau_magnetic_activity}. This can lead to magnetic interactions between the K dwarf and the white dwarf \citep{V471tau_magnetic_activity}, which may lead to the increased flare count seen.
Looking at all results together, there appears to be a slight flare dependence, which is mostly influenced by the results for K and G stars. The dip in the otherwise seemingly stable histogram for the results of M dwarfs propagates for the overall results. All results will be published on github. The program will be available at \href{URL}{text} while the data will be available at \href{URL}{text}.
Limiting the flare peaks to greater than 1.05 shows two peaks around the center bin, with one higher bin being at the maximum at phase $0 \pi$. While the two peaks around the phase minimum could indicate a dependency on spots, it is not the only relevant bin found. Limiting the flare peaks to a maximum of 1.01 shows an interesting pattern. There is a larger count of flares found during the phase minimum, but also during the phase maximum, while less flares have been detected in the transition between phase miminum/maximum. Increasing the allowed flare peak to 1.05 shows a similar pattern, but the gaps between peaks/dips vanishes and the histogram becomes already very similar to the histogram with all flares.
% All data combined, peak at phase minimum dominated by G/K dwarfs, dip in transition maxima -> minima dominated by dip from M dwarf results.
Out of a total of \textasciitilde80 G dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on 21 stars. This could be due to the algorithm or instruments being possibly not sufficiently sensitive, too noisy data or it could be that there were simply no flares during the observations. Most of the flares detected show a peak of below 1.05, but as \citet{solar_like_superflares} found, flares with a flux increase between 0.1 to 1\% (peaks of 1.001 to 1.01) would already be categorized as superflares for G-star flares detected in broad-band photometry such as Kepler/K2 and TESS. Therefore all flares detected for G stars shown in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount} are superflares as the threshold of the flare detection algorithm is 0.3\%.
For the flares found in this study for G type stars, there is a spot dependency, as the flare count peaks around the phase minimum. Unlike the other results, there is a gradual fall off to each sides till the phase maximum is reached. As no energies have been deduced from the Kepler/K2 and TESS observations a categorization in flares and superflares is difficult for all stars investigated in the present study.
% Individual star results (subset taken):
% BD-08 995 (G type): shows a strong flare/spot dependence for amount, flare peaks not dependent on phase
Limiting the flare peaks to a minimum of 1.05 shows three major peaks. The largest being at the phase minimum, while the other two are in the transition between maximum and miminum and minimum and maximum. This does not indicate a pure spot dependency, and a more detailed look at the individual events is necessary.
% TYC 1360-957-1 (K type): no clear dependence on spots for flare count (1 peak around maximum, 1 during transition, another at minimum), less siginificant with more bins
% Shows strongest flares right before phase minimum though.
BD-08 995, which is according to its B-V color index and effective temperature a late G type star, reflects this trend well. It shows the same bell curve style histogram as the overall flare number histogram of G-stars. Additionally though it also shows a slight increase in flare number around the phase maximum, its highest flare peak was detected around the phase maximum (see figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-flarepeaks_1.2}). The maximum flare count for TYC 4595-107-1 on the other hand is slightly offset before the phase minimum (see figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-10_Bins}). It also shows a slight increase of flares around the maximum. Its highest flare peak was detected in the same bin as the highest flare count (see figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-flarepeaks_1.27}).
% TYC 4595-107-1 (G type): similar to BD-08 995, increase of flares right before minimum, slight (less significant) increase at maximum. (appending folded lightcurves in appendix)
Out of a total of \textasciitilde13 F dwarfs in the list of stars to be analyzed, flares could only be detected on four stars. This could be due to the algorithm or instruments being possibly not sufficiently sensitive, too noisy data or it could be that there were simply no flares during the observations. While all flares detected are centered around the phase minimum, the total of 5 flares detected is not a sufficiently large sample to draw a definite conclusion on the spot to flare/superflare relation.
% V471 Tau: binary with white dwarf, most flares around white dwarf transit -> magnetic interactions likely (ref. to V471 Tau specific papers)
% Strongest flares also around that
% HK Aqr (M dwarf): not fully trusted results, half period was detected for 2/4 lightcurves (original folding had 2 fit maxima too far away from edges, caused it to check for if half period signal was detected and use that)
% only full period results show overall less flares during the maxima
% KOI-256 (M dwarf): similar issue as HK Aqr, in 2/7 Kepler, 2/3 TESS lightcurves, like V471 Tau binary with white dwarf, shows siginficant dependency on spots in with period folded results. (appending folded lightcurves in appendix)
% Largest flares, when period folded only, also at around 0.8 $\pi$ (same flare shifted to 2 $\pi$ in spot modulated fold), otherwise flare energies well spread.
For two stars, namely the K-dwarf TYC 1360-957-1 and the M-dwarf HK Aqr we find that the most energetic flares occur at the same phase. For TYC 1360-957-1 (see figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-flarepeaks_1.31}) the flares with largest flare peak originate all from phase $0.7$ to $0.8 \pi$. Two flares were detected in TESS sector 44 and one two sectors later (sector 46). From the Sun we know that spots can have lifetimes of several rotation periods i.e. several months. This maybe also the case for the spot or spot group being the origin of the three strong flares on TYC 1360-957-1.
A similar finding was made on HK Aqr. Also the three strongest flares have been found to occur at the same phase. For HK Aqr this happened in one TESS sector (sector 29, see figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC_Period}). Also here it is reasonable to assume that these three flares have been generated by the same spot or spot group. For both stars the phases at which these strong flares have occurred are close to the phase minimum, i.e. correspond to hemispheres of the stars showing a huge spottedness.
Looking at all results together, there is a trend that more flares occur when a more spotted stellar hemisphere is visible, than vice versa. This is mostly influenced by the results for K and G stars. The dip in the otherwise seemingly flat histogram for the results of M dwarfs dominates the overall results.
There is at the moment no explanation for the significant dip in the histogram and we doubt that it has a physical meaning.
All results will be published on github. The program will be available at \url{https://gitlab.com/SGCMarkus/flaredetector} while the data will be available at \url{https://gitlab.com/SGCMarkus/flaredetector\_results}. The different branches define which fitting function was used for the data, e.g. the results containing all plots which used a sine function to fit, are found in the "sine" branch on Github.
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\chapter{GUI}
\chapter{GUI application}
\label{sec:gui}
In this chapter the usage of the developed GUI application is explained. It was developed to easily download new data, as well as try various algorithms for flare detection and the usage of various functions of the lightkurve python package (\cite{lightkurve}).
In this chapter the usage of the newly developed GUI application is explained. It was developed to easily download new data, as well as to try various algorithms for flare detection and the usage of various functions of the $lightkurve$ python package \citep{lightkurve}. The GUI is written in python 3 \citep{10.5555/1593511} and uses the PyQt5 \citep{pyqt5} framework.
\section{Data download}
\label{sec:gui:data_download}
During the first startup the GUI window (e.g. in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}) is nearly completely empty. An empty local database will be created with SQLite3 (\cite{sqlite}). To show lightcurves, first data needs to be downloaded. For that, the "Add" button has to be clicked. A new dialog window will show. It can be seen in figure \ref{fig:download_new_star_data_gui}. This GUI uses the astroquery (\cite{astroquery}) python package to fetch metadata and download fits files from MAST (Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes).\\
The first step is to enter the identifier of the star(s). In case of multiple, they have to be seperated by a semicolon. Then the missions from which the data should be fetched can be selected. The supported missions are TESS and Kepler/K2. For Kepler and K2 short and/or long cadence can be selected. The differeces are described in section \ref{sec:intro:space_missions}. After the selection has been made, the fetch button needs to be pressed. The program will then request metadata matching the star identifier(s) and selected missions from the MAST archive. The found mission data is then displayed in the preview field. It can then be downloaded by pressing the "Ok" button. The program the proceeds to download the according fits-files. The filename and TESS sector or Kepler/K2 target table ID is appended to the previously fetched metadata and handed back to the main GUI.\\
There a request to Simbad is made to fetch additional metadata. First the alternative identifiers are fetched from Simbad, which also has a MAIN\_ID attribute. This is to make sure we only have one entry in the local database per star and no duplicates. Afterwards additional data is fetched from Simbad (\cite{simbad}) like spectral type, radial velocity and distance. After the data is gathered, the main identifier, the alternative identifiers, spectral type, rotational velocity and distance (and their respective units) as well as the file path, source (TESS, Kepler or K2), and sector/target table id are saved into a local database using SQLite3 (\cite{sqlite}).
During the first startup the GUI window (e.g. in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}) is nearly completely empty. An empty local database will be created with SQLite3 \citep{sqlite}. To show lightcurves, data need to be downloaded first. For that, the "Add" button has to be clicked and a new dialog window appears. This can be seen in figure \ref{fig:download_new_star_data_gui}. This GUI uses the astroquery \citep{astroquery} python package to fetch metadata and download flexible image transport system (fits) files from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST).
The first step is to enter the identifier of the star(s). In case of multiple identifiers, they have to be seperated by a semicolon. Then the missions from which the data should be fetched can be selected. The supported missions are TESS and Kepler/K2. For Kepler and K2 short and/or long cadence can be selected. The differences are described in section \ref{sec:intro:space_missions}. After the selection has been made, the fetch button needs to be pressed. The program will then request metadata matching the star identifier(s) and selected missions from the MAST archive. The found mission data is then displayed in the preview field. It can then be downloaded by pressing the "Ok" button. The program then proceeds to download the corresponding "fits" files. The filename and TESS sector or Kepler/K2 target table ID is appended to the previously fetched metadata and handed back to the main GUI.
There a request to SIMBAD is made to fetch additional metadata. First the alternative identifiers are fetched from SIMBAD, which also have a MAIN\_ID attribute. This is to make sure we only have one entry in the local database per star and no duplicates. Afterwards additional data is fetched from SIMBAD \citep{simbad} like spectral type, radial velocity and distance. After the data is gathered, the main identifier, the alternative identifiers, spectral type, rotational velocity and distance (and their respective units) as well as the file path, source (TESS, Kepler or K2), and sector/target table ID are saved as an unique identifier into a local database using SQLite3 \citep{sqlite}. For Kepler/K2 the target table ID was chosen instead of the quarter, as the target table ID is a unique number, whereas there can be multiple "fits" files for the same star and the same quarter.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{gui/download_star_data_gui.png}
\caption{GUI window for downloading new fit files with astroquery designed using the Qt5 designer shipped with PyQt5 (\cite{pyqt5}). The star identifier field supports one or more (separated by a semicolon) identifiers. There are checkboxes to select TESS, Kepler (long and/or short cadence) and K2 (long and/or short cadence) data. The preview field shows metadata (Identifier, TESS quarter or Kepler/K2 target table ID) to check the data which was found and which can be downloaded. The "Ok" button then proceeds to download the data and hands information back to the main GUI.}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.9\linewidth]{gui/download_star_data_gui.png}
\caption{GUI window for downloading new "fits" files with astroquery designed using the Qt5 designer shipped with PyQt5 \citep{pyqt5}. The star identifier field supports one or more (separated by a semicolon) identifiers. There are checkboxes to select TESS, Kepler (long and/or short cadence) and K2 (long and/or short cadence) data. The preview field shows metadata (Identifier, TESS sector or Kepler/K2 target table ID) to check the data which was found and which can be downloaded. The "Ok" button then proceeds to download the data and hands information back to the main GUI.}
\label{fig:download_new_star_data_gui}
\end{figure}
\section{Data display and manipulation}
\label{sec:gui:data_display}
Afterwards the list of stars seen in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection} will be refreshed. It shows the via Simbad determined main identifier alphabetically sorted.\\
When one of the stars in the list is selected, the program will show the additional saved informations. This includes all known IDs (in the Alt. IDs list), the spectral type, its rotational velocity and its distance. Additionally a fit type for the folded lightcurves which are described in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction}. The default for this is "sine". The list to the right of the information section shows the available fit files. The formating for the list entries is "TESS - <sequence>" and "Kepler/K2 - <target table id>". The combine button allows to show multiple fit files at once if multiple are selected. Select one or combining multiple fit files, enables the plot options.\\
The main plot options allow the user to change the type of flux thats plotted. This is either "SAP\_FLUX" (simple aperture photometry) or "PDCSAP\_FLUX" (presearch data conditioning simple aperture photometry) (\cite{lightkurve}). The PDCSAP\_FLUX has parts of its data removed depending on the quality flags (e.g. indicating systematic errors like an attitude tweak or a cosmic ray (\cite{tess_science_data_products}, \cite{kepler_archive_manual})) as well as corrected long-term brightness changes (\cite{lightkurve}). An example of a PDCSAP\_FLUX is shown in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}.\\
The lightkurve python package also supports normalizing (to unscaled, percent, parts per thousands (ppt) or parts per million (ppm)) which can be seen in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_normalize_options}. Flattened lightcurves (see figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_flattened} as an example for $BD-08\ 995$) is used to identify flares. The "remove outliers", "remove nans/infs" and "bin" features are exposed in the GUI, but are not actively used in this thesis.\\
The checkboxes to flatten the lightcurve (figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_flattened}), fold the lighhtcurve (figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_folded}) and showing the periodogram (figures \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_periodogram_lombscargle} and \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_periodogram_boxleastsquares}) are exclusive of each other. Only one can be used at a time.
Afterwards the list of stars seen in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection} will be refreshed. It shows the alphabetically sorted main identifier determined from SIMBAD.
When one of the stars in the list is selected, the program will show the additionally saved information. This includes all known identifiers for the star (categorized as alternative identifiers in the Alt. IDs list seen in the "Star infos" section of the GUI), the spectral type, its rotational velocity and its distance (from SIMBAD). Additionally a preferred fitting type for the folded lightcurves (which are described in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction}) can be selected. The default value for this is "sine". The list to the right of the information section shows the available "fits" files. The formating for the list entries is "TESS - <sequence>" and "Kepler/K2 - <target table id>". The "combine" button combines temporary multiple "fits" files into one, which is then plotted. Selecting one or combining multiple "fits" files, enables the plot options.
The main plot options allow the user to change the type of flux that is plotted. This is either "SAP\_FLUX" (simple aperture photometry) or "PDCSAP\_FLUX" (presearch data conditioning simple aperture photometry) \citep{lightkurve} with the latter being the default option. The PDCSAP\_FLUX has parts of its data removed depending on the quality flags (e.g. indicating systematic errors like an attitude tweak or a cosmic ray \citep{tess_science_data_products,kepler_archive_manual}) as well as corrected long-term brightness changes \citep{lightkurve}. An example of a PDCSAP\_FLUX is shown in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}.
The lightkurve python package also supports normalizing (to unscaled, percent, parts per thousands (ppt) or parts per million (ppm)) which can be seen in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_normalize_options}. Flattened lightcurves (see figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_flattened} as an example for $BD-08\ 995$) are used to identify flares. The "remove outliers", "remove nans/infs" and "bin" features are available in the GUI, but are not actively used in this thesis.
The checkboxes to flatten the lightcurve, meaning removing all longterm trends like spot/rotational modulation but leaving short term events intact (figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_flattened}), folding the lightcurve (figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_folded}) and showing the periodogram (figures \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_periodogram_lombscargle} and \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_periodogram_boxleastsquares}) are exclusive of each other. Only one can be used at a time. The values for "Period" and "Epoch Time" are automatically calculated and used as default for the selected lightcurve. If "Optimize" in the "Fold" options is unchecked, the "Epoch Time" represents the first found minimum in the lightcurve, and the "Period" is set to the period of the highest peak found in the Lomb-Scargle periodogram. If "Optimize" is checked, it will use the found rotational period of the optimize fold algorithm described in \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:lightcurve_folding}. If "Show Spot Modulation" is selected, it will use the found spot modulation period instead of the rotational period (see section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction:lightcurve_folding}).
\begin{landscape}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{gui/full_gui_normal_selection.png}
\caption{Main GUI window. This window was designed with the Qt5 designer shipped with PyQz5 (\cite{pyqt5}). It shows a list of all available stars with their main identifier (taken from SIMBAD (\cite{simbad})) sorted alphabetically. The "Star infos" box contains additional information on the star gathered from SIMBAD. There is a list of alternative IDs, the spectral type, the roational velocity, and the distance. It also shows the prefered fit type for folding lightcurves. On the right of the information box is a list of all available lightcurves, with an option to combine multiple to plot at once. To the right of the list of available lightcurves are multiple different plot options, which utilize the different capabilities of the lightkurve python package (\cite{lightkurve}). The values for "Period" and "Epoch Time" are automatically calculated and used as default for the selected lightcurve. In this image the TESS Sector 32 lightcurve of $BD-08\ 995$ is shown. The red crosses show the peaks of the found flares, while the red overall over the lightcurve indicates the duration of the flare.}
\caption{Main GUI window. This window was designed with the Qt5 designer shipped with PyQt5 \citep{pyqt5}. It shows a list of all available stars with their main identifier (taken from SIMBAD) sorted alphabetically. The "Star infos" box contains additional information on the star gathered from SIMBAD. The "Sequences/Target Table ID" box shows the list of all available lightcurves for the selected star, with an option to combine multiple "fits" files to plot at once. To the right of the list of available lightcurves are different plot options, which utilize the different capabilities of the lightkurve python package \citep{lightkurve}. In this image the TESS Sector 32 lightcurve of $BD-08\ 995$ is shown. The red crosses show the peaks of the detected flares, while the red solid lines the lightcurve indicate the duration estimate of the flare.}
\label{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}
\end{figure}
\end{landscape}
\begin{landscape}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{gui/full_gui_normal_selection_show_quality.png}
\caption{Main GUI window. Same as in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}, with the difference that the data quality flag is also shown.}
\caption{Main GUI window. Same as in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}, with the difference that the data quality flag (black solid line) is also shown.}
\label{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_show_quality}
\end{figure}
\end{landscape}
\begin{landscape}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{gui/full_gui_normal_selection_normalize_options.png}
\caption{Main GUI window. Same as in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}, with the difference that the lightcurve was normalized. It also shows all possible normalize options the lightkurve python package (\cite{lightkurve}) supports.}
\caption{Main GUI window. Same as in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}, with the difference that the lightcurve was normalized. It also shows all possible normalize options the lightkurve python package \citep{lightkurve} supports.}
\label{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_normalize_options}
\end{figure}
\end{landscape}
\begin{landscape}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{gui/full_gui_normal_selection_flattened.png}
\caption{Main GUI window. Showing the same lightcurve as figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}, with the difference that it is now flattened. The green line shows a fit of the flare. This is described in chapter \ref{sec:data:data_reduction}.}
\caption{Main GUI window. Showing the same lightcurve as figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}, with the difference that it is now flattened. The green lines show a fit of the flares. This is described in chapter \ref{sec:data:data_reduction}.}
\label{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_flattened}
\end{figure}
\end{landscape}
\begin{landscape}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{gui/full_gui_normal_selection_folded.png}
\caption{Main GUI window. Showing the same lightcurve as figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}, with the difference that it is now folded with an period of ~2.697 days. Additionally vertical lines are shown which indicate the region around the minima and maxima of the folded lightcurve respectively.}
\caption{Main GUI window. Showing the same lightcurve as figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection}, with the difference that it is now folded with a period of ~2.697 days.}
\label{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_folded}
\end{figure}
\end{landscape}
\begin{landscape}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{gui/full_gui_normal_selection_periodogram_lombscargle.png}
\caption{Main GUI window. Showing the periodogram of the lightcurve in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection} using the lombscargle algorithm. Furthermore it shows the four highest peaks (which are atleast 100 datapoints separated). The method is explained in chapter \ref{sec:data:data_reduction}.}
\caption{Main GUI window. Showing the periodogram of the lightcurve in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection} using the Lomb-Scargle algorithm. Furthermore it shows the four highest peaks (which are at least separated by 100 datapoints). The method is explained in chapter \ref{sec:data:data_reduction}.}
\label{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_periodogram_lombscargle}
\end{figure}
\end{landscape}
\begin{landscape}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{gui/full_gui_normal_selection_periodogram_boxleastsquares.png}
\caption{Main GUI window. Showing the periodogram of the lightcurve in figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection} using the box least square algorithm. Similarly to figure \ref{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_periodogram_lombscargle} the four highest peaks are marked with a red "x".}
\label{fig:full_gui_normal_selection_periodogram_boxleastsquares}
\end{figure}
\end{landscape}
\FloatBarrier
\section{Data processing \label{sec:gui:data_processing}}
Pressing the button "New FC" will start the processing of all fits files in the current loaded database. It will sequentially go through all files and apply the flare detection algorithms to the lightcurve, as well as generate the periodogram and optimized folded lightcurves. This is done for the PDCSAP\_FLUX. Additionally plots for each individual lightcurve and processing step are generated. The included data includes:
Pressing the button "New FC" will start the processing of all "fits" files in the current loaded database. It will sequentially go through all files and apply the flare detection algorithms described in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction} to the lightcurves, as well as generate the periodogram and optimized folded lightcurves. This is done for the PDCSAP\_FLUX. Additionally plots for each individual lightcurve and processing step are generated. The data provides:
\begin{itemize}
\item Flares (peak, timestamp, datapoint index in the lightcurve, TESS/Kepler data quality flags)
@@ -87,13 +107,13 @@ Pressing the button "New FC" will start the processing of all fits files in the
\item Additional boundaries around minima and maxima
\end{itemize}
And in the case the period and spot modulation of the star differs, it will seperately safe the folded lightcurves and related data for the stars period as well.
And in the case the period and spot modulation of the star differs, it will seperately save the folded lightcurves and related data for the stars period as well.
After this process is done, a new window will open. It allows to show multiple different debugging statistics like flares per file, flares per star (total, or normalized to per 7 day period) or mean periods for each star. This window can be seen in figure \ref{fig:summary_statistics_window}.
The data can then be saved by clicking "File" and then "Save As", which uses the pandas (\cite{pandas}) "to\_pickle" function. Similarly it can be loaded again using the "read\_pickle" function which is called either by "File" and then "Open" in the debugging statistics window, or by clicking "Open" in the main window next to "New FC".
After this process is finished, a new window will open. It allows to show multiple different debugging statistics like flares per file, flares per star (total, or normalized to a 7 day period) or mean periods for each star. This window can be seen in figure \ref{fig:summary_statistics_window}.
The data can then be saved by clicking "File" and then "Save As", which uses the pandas \citep{pandas} "to\_pickle" function. Similarly it can be loaded again using the "read\_pickle" function which is called either by "File" and then "Open" in the debugging statistics window, or by clicking "Open" in the main window next to "New FC".
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{gui/statistics_summary_window.png}
\caption{Debugging statistics window. Has the option to filter data by sources and spectral type for Kepler/K2/TESS pdcsap flux data. It has the ability to show various statistics likes flares per fits file, flares per star (total or normalized to a period of 7 days), or the mean period detected.}
\caption{Debugging statistics window. It has the option to filter data by sources and spectral type for Kepler/K2/TESS pdcsap flux data. It has the ability to show various statistics like flares per "fits" file, flares per star (total or normalized to a period of 7 days), or the mean period detected. The figure shows statistics generated by pressing the "Show Flares/File" button.}
\label{fig:summary_statistics_window}
\end{figure}
Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-introduction.tex
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@@ -2,25 +2,32 @@
%Example chapter on Asteroseismology
\chapter{Introduction \label{sec:intro}}
%\cleanchapterquote{Shoot for the moon. Even if you miss, you'll land among the stars.}{Les Brown} %optional, if you want to place something here.
This chapter gives an introduction to the goals of this study. Afterwards there will be summaries on topics related to this study, giving explanations on the various spectral types of stars, flares and spots, as well as giving an introduction to the space missions whichs data was used. Last but not least a summary of the current knowledge related to this study is given.
This chapter gives a brief introduction to the goals of this study, the state of the art, scientific backgrounds such as spectral types, spots and flares, as well as to the space missions from which data has been extensively used for the present study.
\section{Goals and current knowledge \label{sec:intro:goals}}
The goal of this study is to relate flares/superflares to the appearance of spots on the surfaces of stars of various spectral types. Flares are well studied for the Sun \citep{solar_flares_1,solar_flares_2,solar_flares_3} with the first recorded event being the Carrington event from September 1859 \citep{Carrington_event}. The same accounts for the impact of stellar activity on Earths magnetic field \citep{solar_flare_mag_field}. A detailed description of spots and flares is given in section \ref{sec:intro:flares_and_spots}. While the first stellar flares were discovered in middle of the last century \citep{early_stellar_flares1,early_stellar_flares2}, the topic gained a lot of attraction with the launch of the likes of Kepler \citep{Kepler_first_results} and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) \citep{TESS_release}. They allowed the survey of thousands of stars. With this, studies of flares and superflares on a large number of stars have been conducted \citep{flare_study_1,flare_study_2,connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler,flare_occurance_periodicity}, but the origin of superflares (flares with a bolometric energy above $10^{33}$ erg) is still not clear. So far no superflare has been observed on our Sun, but there have been studies focusing on the possible origin on superflares and their likelyhood to happen on our Sun \citep{superflares_on_sun}. They found that superflares on our Sun would be rare events (every \textasciitilde800 years for superflares with $10^{34}$ erg). Even more recently \citet{superflare_shapiro} estimated the occurrence rate of superflares with $>10^{34}$ erg on Sun-like stars to roughly once per century.
The goal of this study is to relate flares/superflares to the appearance of spots on the surfaces of stars of various spectral types. Flares are well studied for the sun (\cite{solar_flares_1}, \cite{solar_flares_2}, \cite{solar_flares_3}) as well as its impact on earths magnetic field (\cite{solar_flare_mag_field}). While the first stellar flares were discovered in middle of the last century (\cite{early_stellar_flares1}, \cite{early_stellar_flares2}), the topic gained a lot of traction with the launch of the likes of Kepler and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS). They allowed the survey of thousands of stars. With this, studies of flares and superflares on a large number of stars have been conducted (e.g. \cite{flare_study_1}, \cite{flare_study_2}, \cite{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler}, \cite{flare_occurance_periodicity}), but the origin of superflares (flares with an energy above $10^{33}$ erg) is still not clear. So far no superflare has been observed on our sun, but there have been studies focusing on the possible origin on superflares and their likelyhood to happen on our sun (\cite{superflares_on_sun}). They found that superflares on our sun would be rare events (every \textasciitilde800 years for superflares with $10^{34}$ erg).\\
A few proposed causes could be star-planet interaction (SPI) (\cite{au_mic_flaring_spi}, \cite{SPI_1}, \cite{SPI_2}), or just being scaled up version of normal flares which we see from our sun coming from large spots (\cite{superflares_1}, \cite{superflares_2}).\\
\cite{doyle_2018} studied 34 M dwarfs from the K2 mission, using short cadence observational data. They confirmed that the stars in their dataset with a rotational period of less than 10 days showed more flares, which was already shown previously (\cite{faster_rot_stars_more_flares1}, \cite{faster_rot_stars_more_flares2}). Furthermore they found no star with a preference for when flares occured during the rotational phase (\cite{doyle_2018}). A similar study using TESS 2 minute cadence data has been conducted by \cite{doyle_2019}. In this study they used data of 167 M dwarfs and found a total of 1834 flares. Similar to the study on K2 data, they found no preference for roational phase (\cite{doyle_2019}).\\
Further analysis on periodic flare occurance was done by \cite{flare_occurance_periodicity}, who studied lightcurves of 284 M dwarfs. They found three targets (TIC 80427281, TIC 95328477, TIC 220432563) with a confirmed flare periodicity, which correlates to their rotational period or half of it.\\
\cite{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler} investigated a sample of 119 stars from spectral types M to F. They found that flares which increase the stellar flux by 1\% to 5\% appear more often while larger starspots are visible, while flares which increase the flux by more that 5\% do not seem to have this dependency (\cite{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler}).\\
There have also been studies on individual stars, for example \cite{kepler_411_study} focused on Kepler-411 by investigating the relation between superflares and star spots on that star. They found a positive correlation between the energy of flares and the area of star spots (\cite{kepler_411_study}) on Kepler-411. They then compared their results for Kepler-411, which produced multiple superflares, with Kepler-210, which did not produce superflares while having the same number of spots (\cite{kepler_411_210_comparison}). They found the spots on Kepler-210 to be larger, warmer and therefor being magnetically weaker/less complex compared to Kepler-411 and concluded that the area of starspots is not the only relevant parameter for superflare occurance (\cite{kepler_411_210_comparison}). Star-planet interaction is studied by \cite{au_mic_flaring_spi} for the star AU Mic. While they found a signal in their used TESS lightcurves correlating with the orbital period of AU Mic b, they require more observation time to get a $>3\sigma$ detection (\cite{au_mic_flaring_spi}).\\
In coclusion, many flares and superflares have been found on stars, but the origin of the later is still not clear. There are a few ongoing possible origins like star-planet interaction (or interactions with other close companions) or them coming from larger, more complex starspots.
A few proposed generation mechanisms for superflares could be star-planet interaction (SPI) \citep{au_mic_flaring_spi,SPI_1,SPI_2}, or just being scaled up version of normal flares which we see from our Sun coming from large spots \citep{superflares_1,superflares_2}. In the latter case, we would expect to see a correlation between the appearance of superflares and the spot modulation/phase (spots or spot groups rotating in and out of the visible disk of a star, periodically slightly dimming it).
\section{State of the art - relation between flare occurrence, spots, and rotation \label{sec:intro:goals}}
\citet{doyle_2018} studied 34 M dwarfs from the K2 mission, using short cadence observational data. They confirmed that the stars in their dataset with a rotational period of less than 10 days showed more flares than stars with longer rotation periods, which was already shown previously \citep{faster_rot_stars_more_flares1,faster_rot_stars_more_flares2}. Furthermore they found no star with a preference for when flares occured during the rotational phase \citep{doyle_2018}. A similar study using TESS 2 minute cadence data has been conducted by \citet{doyle_2019}. In this study they used data of 167 M dwarfs and found a total of 1834 flares. Similar to the study on K2 data, they found no preference for rotational phase \citep{doyle_2019}.
\citet{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler} investigated a sample of 119 stars from spectral types M to F. They used a subset of the Kepler long-cadence data. They found that flares which increase the stellar flux by 1\% to 5\% appear more often while larger starspots are visible, while flares which increase the flux by more that 5\% do not seem to have this dependency \citep{connection_starspots_flares_ms_kepler}.
Further analysis on periodic flare occurrence was done by \citet{flare_occurance_periodicity}, who studied TESS lightcurves of 284 cool dwarfs. They found three targets (TIC 80427281, TIC 95328477, TIC 220432563) with a confirmed flare periodicity, which correlates to their rotational period or half of it.
There have also been studies on individual stars, for example \citet{kepler_411_study} focused on Kepler-411, which is a K2V dwarf, by investigating the relation between superflares and star spots on that star. They found a positive correlation between the energy of flares and the area of star spots \citep{kepler_411_study} on Kepler-411. They then compared their results for Kepler-411, which produced multiple superflares, with Kepler-210 (a K dwarf with two planets), which did not produce superflares while having the same number of spots \citep{kepler_411_210_comparison}. They found the spots on Kepler-210 to be larger, warmer and therefore being magnetically weaker/less complex compared to Kepler-411 and concluded that the area of starspots is not the only relevant parameter for superflare occurrence \citep{kepler_411_210_comparison}.
Star-planet interaction was studied by \citet{au_mic_flaring_spi} for the star AU Mic. While they found a signal in their used TESS lightcurves correlating with the orbital period of AU Mic b, they state that a $>3\sigma$ detection requires more observations \citep{au_mic_flaring_spi}.
In conclusion, many flares and superflares have been found on stars, but the origin of the latter is still not clear. Although it is widely accepted that superflares may be scaled up normal flares, still the issue of star-planet interaction is discussed. Furthermore, the above mentioned studies could not relate flare/superflare occurrence distinctively to the spottedness of stars. With a large data set comprised of Kepler, K2 and TESS data we aim for a more distinct relation of flare/superflare occurrence and spottedness of stars.
\section{Spectral Types \label{sec:intro:spectral_types}}
The spectral types are a way to classify the vast amount of stars into various types. The original definition of the currently used Harvard System was developed by \cite{orig_harvard_system_sptype_definition}. It characterized stars by their most prominent spectral lines. The different spectral types introduced are O, B, A, F, G, K and M. In this system the stars were differentiated by their different prominent spectral lines. For example B type stars were described to have faint hydrogen lines, but numerous helium lines. Another example would be spectral class A, which was described to have the most prominent hydrogen lines (\cite{orig_harvard_system_sptype_definition}). Furthermore the spectral classes were divided into 10 subtypes, with 1 to 9 attached to the letter. In a later revision, the spectral types without a numeral had a 0 attached, for example B to B0 or A to A0 (\cite{orig_harvard_system_sptype_definition2}). If the exact spectral type can not be determined, the numeral should be left out (\cite{orig_harvard_system_sptype_definition2}).
\cite{spectral_lines_temperature_correlation} then found that this specification links to the effective temperature of stars, with O being the hottest, and M being the coolest. The same goes for the subtypes, with 0 being the hottest, and 9 the coolest of their respective type (\cite{harvard_spectral_types_teff}). Additionally the terms "early" and "late" are often used and can refer to the spectral type itself, with the hotter O, B, or A stars being "early" type, and cooler F, G, K, M stars being "late" types, or if used in combination with a spectral type, it refers to hotter or colder subtypes like K0 being an early K type or G9 being a late G type (\cite{astrophysics_group_uk_spectral_types}). Table \ref{tab:spectral_types_table} shows the spectral types with their respective approximate temperature range as well as color.
Spectral classification is a way to classify the vast amount of stars into various types. The original definition of the currently used Harvard System was developed by \citet{orig_harvard_system_sptype_definition}. It characterized stars by their most prominent spectral lines. The different spectral types introduced are O, B, A, F, G, K and M. In this system the stars were differentiated by their different prominent spectral lines. For example B type stars were described to have faint hydrogen lines, but numerous helium lines. Another example would be spectral class A, which was described to have the most prominent hydrogen lines \citep{orig_harvard_system_sptype_definition}. Furthermore the spectral classes were divided into 10 subtypes, with 1 to 9 attached to the letter. In a later revision, the spectral types without a numeral had a 0 attached, for example B to B0 or A to A0 \citep{orig_harvard_system_sptype_definition2}. If the exact spectral type can not be determined, the numeral should be left out \citep{orig_harvard_system_sptype_definition2}. \citet{spectral_lines_temperature_correlation} then found that this specification links to the effective temperature of stars, with O being the hottest, and M being the coolest. The same applies to the subtypes, with 0 being the hottest, and 9 the coolest of their respective type \citep{harvard_spectral_types_teff}. Additionally the terms "early" and "late" are often used and can refer to the spectral type itself, with the hotter O, B, or A stars being "early" type, and cooler F, G, K, M stars being "late" types, or if used in combination with a spectral type, it refers to hotter or colder subtypes like K0 being an early K type or G9 being a late G type \citep{astrophysics_group_uk_spectral_types}. Table \ref{tab:spectral_types_table} shows the spectral types with their respective approximate temperature range as well as color.
\begin{table}
\caption{Table showing the different spectral types, in relation to their minimum and maximum effective temperature ranges in K. Based on the tables found in \cite{astrophysics_group_uk_spectral_types}, \cite{harvard_spectral_types_teff}}
\centering
\caption{Table showing the different spectral types, in relation to their minimum and maximum effective temperature ranges in Kelvin. Based on the tables given in \citep{astrophysics_group_uk_spectral_types,harvard_spectral_types_teff}.}
\label{tab:spectral_types_table}
\begin{tabular}{lccl}
\hline
@@ -39,43 +46,50 @@ The spectral types are a way to classify the vast amount of stars into various t
\end{table}
% Different Spectral Types
\FloatBarrier
\section{Spots and Flares \label{sec:intro:flares_and_spots}}
This section will give a short overview of starspots/flares by explaining it based on the best observable example we have: the Sun.
This section gives a short overview of starspots/flares by explaining it based on the best observable example we have: the Sun.
\subsection{Spots}
Sunspots, or genereally speaking spots, are magnetic regions on the surface of a star that are cooler than their surroundings. Spots generally have a umbra, which is the center, and the penumbra, which is surrounding the umbra and separating it from the rest of the surface of the star (\cite{sunspots_overview}). If a spot does not have a penumbra, it is called a pore (\cite{sunspots_overview}). The size of spots varies greately, and can be up to a diameter of 60000 km on the sun and have live times from a few days to multiple months (\cite{sunspots_overview}). The umbra can be 1000 to 1900K cooler than the solar surface, while the penumbra can be 250 to 400 K cooler, which also causes them to be less bright than the rest of the photosphere (values for the sun, \cite{sunspots_overview}). This is because the strong magnetic fields (1800 to 3700 G in the umbra and 700 to 1000 G in the penumbra, compared to a few gauss in the photosphere (\cite{sunspots_overview})) limit the convection process, effecitvely reducing the thermal energy in this areas (\cite{sunspots_overview}, \cite{sun_photosphere_mag_field_strength}). An example of a sunspot can be seen in figure \ref{fig:sunspot_soho}. The image was taken by SOHO (Solar \& Heliospheric Observatory, \cite{soho_project_page}, \cite{soho_esa}, \cite{soho_nasa}). It shows a sunspot, with its umbra (dark spots) being slightly larger than Earth. The penumbra is visible in orange, and the surrounding solar photosphere is colored in yellow. Additionally an image of the whole visible suns surface at the time is included in the top right. The sunspot is located slightly left of the center.\\
Figure \ref{fig:sunspot_magnetic_field_lines} shows an example of a sunspot, with its umbra and penumbra and magnetic field lines, with more field lines at the umbra representing a stronger magnetic field. Each spot is also magnetically linked to one or more spots of the opposite polarity, with the magnetic field varrying in complexity. A simple example of this can be seen in figure \ref{fig:sunspot_magnetic_field_lines_connecting}.
Sunspots, or genereally speaking spots, are magnetic regions on the surface of a star that are cooler than their surroundings. Spots generally have an umbra, which is the center, and the penumbra, which is surrounding the umbra and separating it from the rest of the surface of the star \citep{sunspots_overview}. If a spot does not have a penumbra, it is called a pore \citep{sunspots_overview}. The size of spots varies greatly, and can be up to a diameter of 60000 km on the Sun and have lifetimes from a few days up to several months \citep{sunspots_overview}. The umbra can be 1000 to 1900K cooler than the solar surface, while the penumbra can be 250 to 400 K cooler, which also causes them to be less bright than the rest of the photosphere (values for the Sun, \citealp{sunspots_overview}). This is because the strong magnetic fields (1800 to 3700 G in the umbra and 700 to 1000 G in the penumbra, compared to a few gauss in the photosphere \citep{sunspots_overview}) limit the convection process, effectively reducing the thermal energy in this area \citep{sunspots_overview,sun_photosphere_mag_field_strength}. An example of a sunspot can be seen in figure \ref{fig:sunspot_soho}. The image was taken by SOHO (Solar \& Heliospheric Observatory)\footnote{\href{https://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/}{https://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/}}\textsuperscript{,}\footnote{\href{https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/SOHO}{https://www.esa.int/Science\_Exploration/Space\_Science/SOHO}}\textsuperscript{,}\footnote{\href{https://science.nasa.gov/mission/soho/}{https://science.nasa.gov/mission/soho/}}. It shows a sunspot, with its umbra (black area) being slightly larger than Earth. The penumbra is visible in orange, and the surrounding solar photosphere is colored in yellow. Additionally an image of the full solar disk at the same time the spot image was taken is included in the top right. The sunspot is located slightly left of the center. Figure \ref{fig:sunspot_magnetic_field_lines} shows a sketch of a sunspot, with its umbra and penumbra and magnetic field lines, with more field lines at the umbra representing a stronger magnetic field. Each spot is also magnetically linked to one or more spots of the opposite polarity, with the magnetic field varying in complexity. A simple example of this can be seen in figure \ref{fig:sunspot_magnetic_field_lines_connecting}.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.6\linewidth]{gfx/spots/sunspot00.png}
\caption{Image showing a sunspot from the 23. September 2000. Comparison of its size to Earth in the bottom left. The whole visible photosphere of the Sun is visible in the top right corner. Image taken from the SOHO image gallery (\cite{soho_project_page}).}
\caption{Image showing a sunspot from 23 September 2000. Comparison of its size to Earth in the bottom left. The whole disk of the Sun is visible in the top right corner. Image taken from the SOHO image gallery \citep{soho_project_page}.}
\label{fig:sunspot_soho}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.7\linewidth]{gfx/spots/magnetic_fields_above_sunspot.png}
\caption{Image showing magnetic field lines coming out of a sunspot. Field lines are denser in the umbra compared to the penumbra, representing stronger magnetic fields. Image from \cite{sunspot_magfieldlines_image}.}
\caption{Image showing magnetic field lines coming out of a sunspot. Field lines are denser in the umbra compared to the penumbra, representing stronger magnetic fields. Image from \citet{sunspot_magfieldlines_image}.}
\label{fig:sunspot_magnetic_field_lines}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.6\linewidth]{gfx/spots/image1_3.png}
\caption{Image showing two sunspots being connected by magnetic field lines. Image from \cite{sunspot_mag_field_connecting_to_second}.}
\caption{Image showing two sunspots being connected by magnetic field lines. Image from \citet{sunspot_mag_field_connecting_to_second}.}
\label{fig:sunspot_magnetic_field_lines_connecting}
\end{figure}
\FloatBarrier
\subsection{Flares}
Flares are a sudden release of a huge amount of magnetic energy, which happens due to magnetic reconnection (\cite{flares_1}). The energy which is released, is the so called free magnetic energy. This is the excess energy above the ground state of the magnetic field. During a period of days to weeks this free energy is accumulated. This is done by braiding, sheering and twisting the frozen-in magnetic fields. The further the magnetic field now strays from the ground state by these kind of modifications, the more energy is built up. To release the stored energy, magnetic reconnection has to happen. For this two magnetic field lines of opposing direction need to come close. This causes a current sheet to form due to the strong current flow. In this region the frozen-in state is broken. The energy that is released during the reconnection process causes a temperature increase of the surrounding plasma (multiple 10 million K). This is then observed in soft X-ray, EUV as well as some lines in the visible spectrum and in radio. Additionally particles are accelerated and when they hit the denser chromosphere, those particles are decelerated quickly, producing hard X-ray (Bremsstrahlung). The energy release can take just a few tens of seconds, but can also last up to a few hours on the sun.
Flares are a sudden release of a huge amount of magnetic energy, which happens due to magnetic reconnection \citep{solar_flares_3} with the first flare observed on 1 September 1859 by \citet{Carrington_event} and \citet{Carrington_event2}. \citet{Carrington_event3} estimated the energy release of the flare to $5.77 \pm 2.89 * 10^{32}$ erg, with an estimated GOES classification of X46 to X126 with a median of X80. The energy which is released, is the so called free magnetic energy \citep{priest_1,priest_2}. This is the excess energy above the ground state of the magnetic field. During a period of days to weeks this free energy is accumulated by braiding, sheering and twisting the frozen-in magnetic fields \citep{priest_1,priest_2}. The more the magnetic field now differs from the unmodified state, the more energy is built up which is then released in a magnetic reconnection \citep{priest_1,priest_2}. For this two magnetic field lines of opposing direction need to come close \citep{priest_1,priest_2}. This causes a current sheet to form due to the strong current flow \citep{priest_1,priest_2}. In this region the frozen-in state is broken \citep{priest_1,priest_2}. The energy that is released during the reconnection process causes a temperature increase of the surrounding plasma (multiple 10 million K) \citep{priest_1,priest_2}. This is then observed in soft X-ray, EUV, FUV, UV as well as some lines in the visible spectrum and in radio \citep{priest_1,priest_2}. Additionally particles are accelerated and when they hit the denser chromosphere, those particles are decelerated quickly, producing hard X-ray (Bremsstrahlung) \citep{priest_1,priest_2}. The energy release can take just a few tens of seconds, but can also last up to a few hours on the Sun \citep{flare_duration}. An illustration of this process can be seen in figure \ref{fig:solar_flare}.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.6\linewidth]{gfx/flares/Color-online-Standard-model-of-a-solar-flare-The-flare-is-triggered-by-the-ascension.png}
\caption{Illustration showing the standard model for a solar flare. The blue arrows indicate inflow of cool plasma. The green arrows indicate outflow of hot plasma. Image from \citet{flare_image}.}
\label{fig:solar_flare}
\end{figure}
% Stellar Activity,
\FloatBarrier
\section{Space missions \label{sec:intro:space_missions}}
% TESS, Kepler/K2
@@ -83,15 +97,26 @@ This section gives a short overview on the space mission from which the data was
\subsection{Kepler and K2}
The Kepler space telesope was named after Johannes Kepler and was launched in 2009 (\cite{nasa_kepler_in_depth}) and its primary mission lasted till May 2013 (\cite{kepler_missions_and_data_mast}). Its main scientific goal was the discovery of exoplanets, especially Earth-sized ones, in the habitable zone around their host star (\cite{kepler_missions_caltech}, \cite{Kepler_first_results}). This was done by observing transits of planets around their host star (\cite{kepler_missions_caltech}, \cite{kepler_missions_and_data_mast}, \cite{Kepler_first_results}). \\
It provides two different types of data: short cadence (1 minute exposure) and long cadence (30 minute exposure) data (\cite{Kepler_first_results}, \cite{kepler_missions_and_data_mast}). While short cadence data provides a higher temporal resolution, it was used for fewer targets (\cite{Kepler_first_results}). It had a fixed exposure time of 6.02 seconds for its photometer with a field of view of 115 $deg^{2}$ near the cygnus constellation (\cite{Kepler_first_results}, \cite{kepler_missions_and_data_mast}). The data was then for selected targets accumulated to either short or long cadence, and then downloaded (\cite{Kepler_first_results}). The space telescope could accomondate data of around 170,000 targets with long cadence and 512 targets with short cadence (\cite{Kepler_first_results}). The resolution of each of the 42 CCDs was 4 arcseconds per pixel (\cite{doyle_2019}, \cite{kepler_mission_stellar_and_instrument_noise}).\\
The K2 mission is the continuation mission of Kepler after the second of four of its reaction wheels broke in 2013 (\cite{nasa_kepler_in_depth}, \cite{k2_missions_and_data_mast}). Due to this, a new mission was proposed, keeping the now limited capabilities in mind (\cite{nasa_kepler_in_depth}). The mission was active from February 2014 till September 2018 when its fuel ran out (\cite{k2_missions_and_data_mast}, \cite{kepler_end_nytimes}, \cite{kepler_end_nasa_press}). It discovered a total of over 2600 planets as of 2018 (\cite{kepler_end_nytimes}, \cite{kepler_end_nasa_press}).
The Kepler space telesope was named after Johannes Kepler and was launched in 2009\footnote{\label{fn:nasa_kepler_in_depth}\href{https://science.nasa.gov/mission/kepler/in-depth/}{https://science.nasa.gov/mission/kepler/in-depth/}} and its primary mission lasted till May 2013\footnote{\label{fn:kepler_missions_and_data_mast}\href{https://archive.stsci.edu/missions-and-data/kepler}{https://archive.stsci.edu/missions-and-data/kepler}}. Its main scientific goal was the discovery of exoplanets, especially Earth-sized ones, in the habitable zone around their host star using the transit method\footnote{\label{fn:kepler_missions_caltech}\href{https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/docs/KeplerMission.html}{https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/docs/KeplerMission.html}} \citep{Kepler_first_results}.
It provides two different types of data: short cadence (1 minute exposure) and long cadence (30 minute exposure) data\cref{fn:kepler_missions_and_data_mast} \citep{Kepler_first_results}. While short cadence data provides a higher temporal resolution, it was used for fewer targets \citep{Kepler_first_results}. It had a fixed exposure time of 6.02 seconds for its photometer with a field of view of 115 deg\textsuperscript{2} near the Cygnus constellation\cref{fn:kepler_missions_and_data_mast} \citep{Kepler_first_results} and is most sensitive in the visual to near infrared as seen in figure \ref{fig:kepler_bands}. The data was then accumulated for selected targets to either short or long cadence, and then downloaded \citep{Kepler_first_results}. The space telescope could accomodate data of around 170,000 targets with long cadence and 512 targets with short cadence \citep{Kepler_first_results}. The spatial resolution of each of the 42 CCDs was 4 arcseconds per pixel \citep{doyle_2019,kepler_mission_stellar_and_instrument_noise}.
The K2 mission is the continuation mission of Kepler after the second of four of its reaction wheels broke in 2013\cref{fn:nasa_kepler_in_depth} \citep{k2_missions_and_data_mast}. Due to this, a follow-up mission was proposed, keeping the now limited capabilities in mind\cref{fn:nasa_kepler_in_depth}. The mission was active from February 2014 till September 2018 when its fuel ran out\footnote{\label{fn:k2_missions_and_data_mast}\href{https://archive.stsci.edu/missions-and-data/k2}{https://archive.stsci.edu/missions-and-data/k2}}\textsuperscript{,}\footnote{\label{fn:kepler_end_nytimes}\href{https://web.archive.org/web/20181030211627/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/30/science/nasa-kepler-exoplanet.html}{https://web.archive.org/web/20181030211627/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/30/science/nasa-kepler-exoplanet.html}}\textsuperscript{,}\footnote{\label{fn:kepler_end_nasa_press}\href{https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-retires-kepler-space-telescope/}{https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-retires-kepler-space-telescope/}}. It discovered a total of over 2600 confirmed planets as of 2018\cref{fn:kepler_end_nytimes}\textsuperscript{,}\cref{fn:kepler_end_nasa_press}.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.6\linewidth]{gfx/kepler/kepler_bandpass_jason1.jpg}
\caption{Johnson B, V, R and I in comparison to the Kepler, MOST and CoRoT missions response curves. Also shown is a A2V and a M2V spectrum. Image from \citet{kepler_sensitivity}.}
\label{fig:kepler_bands}
\end{figure}
\subsection{TESS}
The Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) was launched in 2018, with its primary mission lasting two years (\cite{tess_nasa}). Since 2020 TESS is in its extended missions, the first being from 2020 to 2022 (\cite{tess_extended_mission_1}), the second from 2022 to 2024 (\cite{tess_extended_mission_2}). TESS has four identical cameras, with each providing a 24 times 24 degree field of view (\cite{tess_tess}, \cite{TESS2014}). TESS's CCDs have a pixel scale of 21 arcseconds (\cite{TESS2014}, \cite{doyle_2019}). The data is provided in 2 minute cadence for individual stars and 30 minute cadence for full frame images (\cite{tess_tess}).\\
TESS observes its targets in so called sectors. Each sector is observed for 27 days (\cite{tess_tess}).
%\section{Current knowledge \label{sec:intro:current_knowledge}}
The Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) was launched in 2018, with its primary mission lasting two years\footnote{\href{https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/tess/}{https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/tess/}}, and was designed to detected exoplanets using the transit method. Since 2020 TESS is in its extended mission, the first being from 2020 to 2022\footnote{\label{fn:tess_extended_mission_1}\href{https://archive.stsci.edu/contents/newsletters/august-2020/tess-extended-mission}{https://archive.stsci.edu/contents/newsletters/august-2020/tess-extended-mission}}, the second from 2022 to 2024\cref{fn:tess_tess}. TESS has four identical cameras, with each providing a 24 times 24 degree field of view\footnote{\label{fn:tess_tess}\href{https://tess.mit.edu/science/}{https://tess.mit.edu/science/}} \citep{tess_response_curve}. TESS's CCDs have a pixel scale of 21 arcseconds \citep{tess_response_curve,doyle_2019} and is most sensitive in the red and near infrared (see figure \ref{fig:tess_bands}). The data is provided in 2 minute cadence for individual stars and 30 minute cadence for full frame images\cref{fn:tess_tess}. Since the first extended mission, the cadence for full frame images has been reduced to 200 seconds, and additionally 20 second cadence data is available\cref{fn:tess_tess}. TESS observes its targets in so called sectors. Each sector is observed for 27 days\cref{fn:tess_tess}.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.6\linewidth]{gfx/tess/Figure1.pdf}
\caption{Johnson V, R\textsubscript{C}, I\textsubscript{C} and SDSS z (colored dashed lines) response curves and in comparison to TESS (solid black line). Image from \citet{tess_response_curve}.}
\label{fig:tess_bands}
\end{figure}
Physics_Thesis_Template/content/chapter-results.tex
+153 -124
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@@ -1,15 +1,14 @@
\chapter{Results \label{sec:results}}
This chapter includes the main results of this study. The data for the plots were generated using the "New FC" Button from the main GUI described in section \ref{sec:gui:data_processing}.
The results contain plots for the different spectral types M, K, G, and F as well as combined results of every possible combination. Additionally for all these possible combinations, plots with data limits, e.g. only stars with a rotational period of less than 2 days or minimal/maximal normalized flare peak limits, were also generated. Additionally plots for stars with a more detailed spectral type like M0 or G5 were created. Furthermore there is a selection of individual star results. For every plot group a CSV file is generated, which contains information about every star and flare used to generate the plot.
The results also only contain the data of folded lightcurves which could be fitted with a sine function and less than 30 iterations of the fold optimization. The data which uses polynomial fits or both sine and polynomial fits as well as all plots and the accompanying CSV files are available at \href{https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1L_F21W3WwZicVZg9052B12B2hJNuJBwK?usp=drive_link}{google drive}.
This chapter includes the main results of this study. The data for the plots in this section were generated using the "New FC" Button from the main GUI described in section \ref{sec:gui:data_processing}. As every star has a different rotational/spot modulation period, the value range for the phases of the folded lightcurves do not match. To compare different stars (or spot modulation periods for the same star) with each other, the phase was normalized from $0$ to $2 \pi$.
The results contain plots for the different spectral types M, K, G, and F as well as combined results of every possible combination. Additionally for all these possible combinations, plots with data limits, e.g. only stars with a rotational period of less than 2 days or minimal/maximal normalized flare peak limits, were also generated. Moreover plots for stars according to their spectral sub type like M0 or G5 were created. Furthermore there is a selection of individual star results. For every plot group a CSV file is generated, which contains information about every star and flare used to generate the plot. The results also only contain the data of folded lightcurves which could be fitted with a sine function and less than 30 iterations of the fold optimization. The data which uses polynomial fits or both sine and polynomial fits as well as all plots and the accompanying CSV files are available at \url{https://gitlab.com/SGCMarkus/flaredetector\_results}.
\section{M dwarfs \label{sec:results:m_dwarfs}}
This section shows the results for 49 M dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The list of stars can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_m_stars}.\\
Figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins} show histograms, with 10 and 30 bins respectively, of the amount of flares during the normalized phase.\\
Looking at figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins} there is an even distribution within error of flares across the normalized phase, with the excepion of the bin at phase $0.5 \pi$. The bin at phase $0.5 \pi$ shows a significant dip of roughly twice the error below the surrounding bins.\\
Looking at the same data, just with 30 instead of 10 bins (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the same dip is visible. In this figure the dip spans 3 bins. Additionally there are additional dips at around phase $0.7 \pi$, $1.3 \pi$ and $1.4 \pi$. Including the error, the major dip (which was already visible in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}) is still below the average. Similar for the dips at phases $0.7 \pi$ and $1.3 \pi$. The dip at phase $1.4 \pi$ on the other hand overlaps with its error with the errorbars of the bins at phase \textasciitilde$1.7 \pi$ and and onward, which are good assumption for an average value. Due to the dips surrounding the center, it may look like there is an increased number of flares in the center. If we look at the errorbars, it is clear that only the bin at phase \textasciitilde$1.25 \pi$ is above the average.
This section shows the results for 49 M dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The list of stars can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_m_stars}.
Figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins} show flare count histograms, with 10 and 30 phase bins respectively, of the number of flares depending on the normalized phase. Looking at figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins} there is an even distribution, within the error, of flares across the normalized phase, with the exception of the bin at phase $0.5 \pi$. The bin at phase $0.5 \pi$ shows a significant dip of roughly twice the error below the surrounding bins. Looking at the same data, just with 30 instead of 10 bins (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the same dip is visible. In this figure the dip spans 3 bins. Additionally there are additional dips around phase $0.7 \pi$, $1.3 \pi$ and $1.4 \pi$. Including the error, the major dip (which was already visible in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}) is still significantly below the surrounding bins. The same is true for the dips at phases $0.7 \pi$ and $1.3 \pi$. The dip at phase $1.4 \pi$ on the other hand is not significant. Due to the dips surrounding the minimum at phase $1 \pi$, it looks like there is an increased number in flares around the phase minimum as well as phase maximum.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -25,16 +24,13 @@ Looking at the same data, just with 30 instead of 10 bins (figure \ref{fig:M-Fla
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histogram showing the amount of flares per phase of 49 M dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histogram showing the number of flares per phase of 49 M dwarfs for which a total of 3523 flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:M-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
Filtering the data by the minimal flare peak (see figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak} to \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}), makes the trend of figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins} clearer. There are increasinly more flares in the minima at phase $1 \pi$ (more/bigger star spots) and maxima at phase $0$ and $2 \pi$ (less/smaller star spots) compared to the transitions.
Taking a closer look at figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak}, which accounts only for normalized flare peaks greater than 1.25 with 10 bins, the same dips (around phases $0.5 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$) as in the previous figure (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}) are visible. Comparing to the dip visible in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}, it widened by 1 bin.
At phase \textasciitilde$1.7 \pi$ to $2 \pi$ there is a major peak. While the last bin overlaps slightly with the one at phase $0.9 \pi$ with accounting for error, the second to last does not.\\
The same data, just with 30 bins can be seen in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.25_peak}. There are no continuous peaks like in the previous figure, but at the same phases there are bins with an increased number of flares. Additionally, at around phase $0.6 \pi$, there is a larger amount of flares compared to the bins next to it.\\
Increasing the normalized minimal flare peak further to 1.5 decreases the total amount of flares further, which results in a comparatively large error. This makes the error half the size or even larger than some of the bins in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.5_peak}. Nontheless its visible that the largest flares seem to appear more often around phase $1 \pi$ and phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$. Including the error, those peaks are still higher than the flare count of the in previous figures mentioned dips.\\
Increasing the bin count to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}) decreases the individual bin heights so far, that the errorbars start to explode in size, which causes all of them to overlap and not give any proper results.
Filtering the data by the minimal flare peak, meaning only taking flares into account which have a normalized flare peak of greater than a fixed threshold (an example of flare peak distributions is seen in figures \ref{fig:BD-08_995-flarepeaks_1.2}), is shown in figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak} to \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}. There are more flares in the minima at phase $1 \pi$ (more/bigger star spots) and maxima at phase $0$ and $2 \pi$ (less/smaller star spots) compared to the phase transition regions (phase regions between maximum and minimum). Taking a closer look at figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak}, which accounts only for normalized flare peaks greater than 1.25 with 10 bins, the same dips (around phases $0.5 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$) as in the previous figure (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}) are visible. Comparing those to the dip visible in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}, it widened by 1 bin. From phase \textasciitilde$1.7 \pi$ to $2 \pi$ there is a major peak. The same data, just with 30 bins can be seen in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.25_peak}. Peaks in this histogram appear at the same phases as in the histogram with 10 bins. Even though those bins are now partially seperated by bins with a low flare count at phases \textasciitilde$0.2 \pi$, $1 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.8 \pi$. Additionally, at around phase $0.6 \pi$, there is now a smaller peak visible, while there was none in the histogram with 10 bins.
Increasing the normalized minimal flare peak threshold further to 1.5 decreases the total number of flares further, which results in a comparatively large error. This makes the error half the size or even larger than some of the bins in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.5_peak}. Nontheless it is visible that the largest flares seem to appear more often around phase $1 \pi$ and phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$. Increasing the number of bins to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}) causes very large error bars which do not allow any proper analysis.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -50,7 +46,7 @@ Increasing the bin count to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_pea
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.25_peak}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.25 per phase of 27 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak}) /30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.25_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.25 per phase of 27 M dwarfs for which a total of 127 such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.25_peak}) /30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.25_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.25_peak}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
@@ -67,14 +63,14 @@ Increasing the bin count to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_pea
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.5 per phase for 20 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.5_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.5 per phase for 20 M dwarfs for which a total of 40 such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.5_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.5_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.5_peak}
\end{figure}
Doing the opposite and only plotting the histograms for flares with normalized peaks of less than 1.01 can be seed in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak}.
Figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak} shows a similar picture to the histogram with no limits on flare peaks (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}). The difference here though is that there are less flares in the area of the minima around phase $0.5 \pi$ to $1.5 \pi$. Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) shows overall a similar pattern, even though the differences between bins, especially in the center druing the phase minima can be larger than twice the error.\\
Limiting the normalized flare peaks to <1.05 (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}) shows again similar pattern to the histograms with all data. In figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak} the major difference is that there is a peak around normalized phase $1.1 \pi$, which would be during the folded lightcurve minima.
The difference becomes less obvious when increasing the bin size 30 (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}). While overall the same are visible, there appears a new dip around phase $0.25 \pi$ which is right after the maximum. Also the shape of the peak consisting of multiple bins around phase $1.1 \pi$ changed slightly compared to the one in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}.
Doing the opposite and only plotting the histograms for flares with normalized peaks of less than 1.01 can be seen in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak}. Figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak} shows a similar picture to the histogram with no filtering (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins}). The difference here though is that there are less flares in the phase region surrounding the minima around phase $0.5 \pi$ to $1.5 \pi$. Increasing the resolution to 30 bins (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) shows overall a similar pattern, even though the scatter of bins, especially in the center during the phase minima are larger than twice the error.
Limiting the normalized flare peaks to <1.05 (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}) shows again a similar pattern as seen in the histograms with all data. In figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak} the major difference is that there is a peak around normalized phase $1.1 \pi$.
The difference becomes less obvious when increasing the bin size 30 (figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}). While it is similar to figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}, there appears a new dip around phase $0.25 \pi$ which appears right after the maximum. Also the shape of the peak consisting of multiple bins around phase $1.1 \pi$ changed slightly compared to the one in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins}.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -90,7 +86,7 @@ The difference becomes less obvious when increasing the bin size 30 (figure \ref
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.01 per phase of 17 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.01 per phase of 17 M dwarfs for which a total of 480 such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak}
\end{figure}
@@ -108,16 +104,16 @@ The difference becomes less obvious when increasing the bin size 30 (figure \ref
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 32 M dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 32 M dwarfs for which a total of 2621 such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:M-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}
\end{figure}
\FloatBarrier
\section{K dwarfs \label{sec:results:k_dwarfs}}
This section shows the results for 37 K dwarfs for which flares could be detected. A full list of the stars used can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_k_stars}.\\
Figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows the amount of flares per phase with 10 bins of 37 K type dwarfs in used in this study. Overall the distribution is even within error, with a slight increase in flares when going from the maximum to the minimum of the lightcurve at phase $0.5 \pi$, and a slight decrease when going from minimum to maximum at phase $1.5 \pi$. There is also a peak at around $1 \pi$ with around 95 flares compared to the 60-80 flares per bin in the rest of the histogram. One of the major contributions is V* V471 Tau. The individual results for this star are visible in section \ref{sec:results:individual}.\\
Looking at the same dataset with 30 bins for the histogram (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the peak in the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ is still visible. Additionally there appear more peaks at phase $>1.3 \pi$ ($1.3,~1.6,~1.9 \pi$), while the amount of flares between phase $0 \pi$ and $1 \pi$ shows a slight trend to more flares with dips inbetween and a larger dip right before and after the big peak at phase $1 \pi$ which was also visible in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins} with 10 bins. The major dips at phase $0.7 \pi$, $1.3 \pi$, $1.6 \pi$ and $1.9 \pi$ are all well outside the errorbars of the surrounding peak bins, while the smaller ones between phase $0 \pi$ and $1 \pi$ overlap with their errorbars with their surrounding bins.
This section shows the results for 21 K dwarfs for which flares could be detected. A full list of the stars used can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_k_stars}.
Figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows the number of flares per phase with 10 bins of 21 K type dwarfs used in the present study. One can see a slight increase in the number of flares between the maximum and minimum of the lightcurve at phase $0.5 \pi$, and a slight decrease between minimum and maximum at phase $1.5 \pi$. There is also a peak around $1 \pi$ with \textasciitilde95 flares compared to the 60-80 flares per bin in the rest of the histogram. One of the major contributions is V* V471 Tau. The individual results for this star are presented in section \ref{sec:results:individual}. Looking at the same dataset with 30 bins for the histogram (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the peak in the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ is still visible. Additionally there appear more peaks at phase $>1.3 \pi$ ($1.3,~1.6,~1.9 \pi$), while the number of flares between phase $0 \pi$ and $0.5 \pi$ shows a slightly increasing trend in the number of flares. We see a larger dip right before and after the big peak at phase $1 \pi$ which was also visible in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins} (10 bins). The major dips at phase $0.7 \pi$, $1.3 \pi$, $1.6 \pi$ and $1.9 \pi$ are significant to 1 $\sigma$, while the smaller ones between phase $0 \pi$ and $1 \pi$ are within the errors.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -133,13 +129,11 @@ Looking at the same dataset with 30 bins for the histogram (figure \ref{fig:K-Fl
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histogram showing the amount of flares per phase of 37 K dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histogram showing the number of flares per phase of 21 K dwarfs for which a total of 742 flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:K-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
The histograms with limited normalized flare peaks to >1.05 is shown in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.5_peak}. In \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak} the histogram with 10 bins is shown, while figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the histogram with 30 bins.
There are multiple clear peaks visible in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak}. The two highest being at phases $0.7 \pi$ as well as $1.1 \pi$, with the latter being wider having a decline till the phase maximum is reached. These two peaks are seperated by a bin at phase $0.9 \pi$ which is significantly lower (roughly twice the errorbar size). Additionally there appears a peak just slightly smaller than the other two in the first bin (at phase maximum).\\
A similar picture forms when increasing the bin count to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}). The main differences to 10 bins is though that the heights of the afformentioned peaks is now the same, and that the errorbars started to overlap with the surrounding bins. Additionally a new peak in the last bin, during the phase maximum, appeared having the same height as the other three.
The histograms with normalized flare peaks limited to >1.05 are shown in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.5_peak}. In figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak} the histogram with 10 bins is shown, while figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the histogram with 30 bins. There are multiple significant peaks visible in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak}. The two highest being at phases $0.7 \pi$ as well as $1.1 \pi$. From phase $1.1 \pi$ onwards we see a decrease in the number of flares. These two peaks are seperated by a bin at phase $0.9 \pi$ which is significantly lower (roughly twice the error). Moreover, we also see a peak at phase $0 \pi$ which is slightly smaller than the other two at $0.7$ and $1.1 \pi$. A similar picture forms when increasing the resolution to 30 bins (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}). The main differences to figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak} is though that the heights of the aformentioned peaks is now the same, and that the errorbars are of course larger than for the 10 bin representation. Additionally a new peak in the last bin, during the phase maximum, appeared having the same height as the other three peaks.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -155,14 +149,13 @@ A similar picture forms when increasing the bin count to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-F
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.05 per phase of 13 K dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.05 per phase of 13 K dwarfs for which a total of 60 such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.5_peak}
\end{figure}
Similarly to what has been done to the histograms in section \ref{sec:results:m_dwarfs}, figures \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak} and \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak} limit the data used to plot the histograms to flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.01 and 1.05 respectively.
In figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}, which limited the flare peaks to a maximum of 1.01, there appears a siginificantly large peak at around phase $1.2 \pi$ which is at the phase minimum. Another, slightly smaller peak appears at the phase maximum at $1.9 \pi$. Both of these peaks are, including error, higher than the average flare count. Checking for more specific phases for the peaks, by increasing the bin count to 30, shows an overall decrease win flares at the phase maximum at around phase $0/2 \pi$, but shows siginificant peaks at phases $1.6 \pi$ and $1.9 \pi$. These two bins are now larger than the one(s) at around phase $1 \pi$ to $1.2 \pi$.\\
Increasing the allowed flare peaks to 1.05 in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} shows a similar pattern to what happened in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} with the data for M dwarfs. The resulting histogram look very similar to the ones using all available flare data for K dwarfs (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount}). The differences of figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}, which shows the histogram with 10 bins with flare peaks limited to <1.05, and \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins}, which shows the histogram with 10 bins for all detected flares of K dwarfs, is that that the two bins at around phase $1.3 \pi$ to $1.5 \pi$ are now more prominant, even though still not outside of the error of their surrounding bins. Similarly the last bin at around phase $1.9 \pi$ is more prominant.\\
Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) shows a very similar figure to as figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins} with 30 bins without any limits to flare peaks. There only very slight differences in the relative bin height.
Similar to figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak} and \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}, we also show the histograms of flares with a normalized peak threshold of less than 1.01 and 1.05. In figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}, where we show the histogram of flares with a peak <1.01, there appears a siginificantly large peak around phase $1.2 \pi$ which is at the phase minimum. Another, slightly smaller peak appears at the phase maximum at $1.9 \pi$. Both of these peaks are significant when comparing them to their surrounding bins. Checking for more specific phases for the peaks, by increasing the resolution to 30 bins, shows siginificant peaks at phases $1.6 \pi$ and $1.9 \pi$. These two bins stand out with respect to their neighbouring bins.
Increasing the maximum flare peak threshold to 1.05 in figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} reveals a similar pattern as shown in figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak} with the data for M dwarfs. The histogram is similar to the ones using all available flare data for K dwarfs (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount}). The differences of figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}, which shows the histogram with 10 bins with flare peaks limited to <1.05, and \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins}, which shows the histogram with 10 bins for all detected flares of K dwarfs, is that that the two bins at around phase $0.3 \pi$ to $0.5 \pi$ are now more pronounced, even though still not outside of the error of their surrounding bins. Similarly the last bin at around phase $1.9 \pi$ is more pronounced. Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) shows a very similar figure compared to figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -178,12 +171,10 @@ Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) s
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.01 per phase of 20 K dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.01 per phase of 20 K dwarfs for which a total of 375 such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.01_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.01_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.01_maxpeak}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.49\textwidth}
@@ -198,17 +189,18 @@ Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) s
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 20 K dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 20 K dwarfs for which a total of 682 such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:K-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}
\end{figure}
\FloatBarrier
\section{G dwarfs \label{sec:results:g_dwarfs}}
This section shows the results for 21 G dwarfs for which flares could be detected. Table \ref{apA:list_of_g_stars} contains a list of all G type stars used.\\
The first histogram over all data of G type dwarfs with 10 bins in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows a significant increase of occuring flares well outside the errorbar range in the lightcurve minima at around phase $1 \pi$ compared to the maxima at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$. The rise in flare occurances from maxima to minima (phase $0 \pi$ to $1 \pi$) seems to be gradual, while there is a steep fall off after the sixth bin at phase $1.1 \pi$.\\
Due to the lower number of detected flares on G type stars, the error bars in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins} are rather large. The increase of flares in the minima of the folded lightcurve from the previous figure is now splint into two peaks at phase $0.6 \pi$ and $1 \pi$. An additional peak bin appears at around phase $0.25 \pi$ in this figure. This peaks errorbar does not overlap with its surrounding bins errorbars. Right before this peak is a significant dip visible at phase $0.2 \pi$. On the other half of the phase after the peak at phase $1 \pi$, the near even distribution of figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins} becomes more noisy, even though its still well within error.\\
Limiting the flare peaks to <1.05 (figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}) does not change the resulting histograms much. There are only miniscule differences, mainly the bin at phase $1.1 \pi$ is now slightly smaller relative to the two prior bins in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak} compared to figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins} with all flares.
This section shows the results for 21 G dwarfs for which flares could be detected. Table \ref{apA:list_of_g_stars} contains a list of all G type stars used.
The first histogram of all data of G type dwarfs with 10 bins in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows a significant increase of flares occuring around phase $1 \pi$ compared to the ones at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$. The rise in flare number from phase $0 \pi$ to $1.3 \pi$ is gradual, while there is a steep fall off after the sixth bin at phase $1.1 \pi$. Due to the lower number of detected flares on G type stars, the error bars in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins} are rather large. The maximum of the histogram shown in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins} is now split into two peaks at phase $0.6 \pi$ and $1 \pi$. An additional peak appears at phase $0.3 \pi$ in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins}. This peak is significant with respect to its neighbouring bins. Right before this peak a significant dip is visible at phase $0.2 \pi$. From phase $1$ to $2 \pi$ we do not see any significant pattern.
Limiting the flare peaks to <1.05 (figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}) does not significantly affect the histograms.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -224,12 +216,11 @@ Limiting the flare peaks to <1.05 (figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpe
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histogram showing the amount of flares per phase of 21 G dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histogram showing the number of flares per phase of 21 G dwarfs for which a total of 700 flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:G-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
Looking only at flares >1.05 on the other side significantly changes how the histograms looks like. Figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the histogram with 10 bins, while figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the one with 30 bins. The histogram with 10 bins shows 3 significant peaks. The first at around phase $0.5 \pi$ with a width of 3 bins, the second at around $1.1 \pi$ and the last at around $1.7 \pi$. All of these peaks are well above their surrounding bins including errors.\\
Increasing the bins to 30, which is seen in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}, does not give such a clear picture. Due to the overall lower total number of flares due to the limit, and the increased bin count, all errorbars are overlapping. Even though there are still singular bins at $0.4 \pi$, $1.1 \pi$ and $1.7 \pi$ which are higher than their surroundings, but not outside the error range anymore.
On the other side, looking at flares with peaks >1.05 reveals completely different histograms. Figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the histogram with 10 bins, while figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak} shows the one with 30 bins. The histogram with 10 bins shows 3 significant peaks. The first at around phase $0.5 \pi$ with a width of 3 bins, the second at around $1.1 \pi$ and the last at around $1.7 \pi$. All of these peaks lie significantly above their surrounding bins. Increasing the bins to 30, which is seen in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}, does not give a clear picture, due to the overall lower total number of flares due to the threshold, and the increased bin count. Even though there are still singular bins at $0.4 \pi$, $1.1 \pi$ and $1.7 \pi$ which are larger than their surrounding, but well within the error range.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -245,7 +236,7 @@ Increasing the bins to 30, which is seen in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 16 G dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of less than 1.05 per phase of 16 G dwarfs for which a total of 656 such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_maxpeak})/30 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_maxpeak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:G-Flarecount-peaks_1.05_maxpeak}
\end{figure}
@@ -263,15 +254,16 @@ Increasing the bins to 30, which is seen in figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.05 per phase of 13 G dwarfs for which such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms showing the number of flares with a normalized peak of greater than 1.05 per phase of 13 G dwarfs for which a total of 44 such flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-10_Bins_1.05_peak})/30 (\subref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins_1.05_peak}) bins of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:G-Flarecount-peaks_1.5_peak}
\end{figure}
\FloatBarrier
\section{F dwarfs \label{sec:results:f_dwarfs}}
This section shows the results for 4 F dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The list of F type stars can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_f_stars}.\\
Due to the low number of F type stars in this study, and the difficulty to detect flares on them, the detected number of flares in figures \ref{fig:F-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:F-Flarecount-30_Bins} is very low which causes the errorbars of the histogram to grow very large. Nontheless all detected flares were around the minimum of the lightcurves.
This section shows the results for four F dwarfs for which a total of 5 flares could be detected. The list of F type stars can be found in table \ref{apA:list_of_f_stars}.
The detected number of flares in the already low number of F type stars in this study in figures \ref{fig:F-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:F-Flarecount-30_Bins} is very low which causes large errorbars of the histogram. Nontheless all detected flares were around the minimum of the phasefolded lightcurves. However, due to the above mentioned large errorbars, the results of F-type main-sequence stars is not significant.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -287,46 +279,82 @@ Due to the low number of F type stars in this study, and the difficulty to detec
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:F-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histogram showing the amount of flares per phase of 4 F dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:F-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:F-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\caption{Histogram showing the number of flares per phase of four F dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:F-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:F-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idealized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\label{fig:F-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
\FloatBarrier
\section{Combined results \label{sec:results:combined}}
The results for all 95 stars in the study for which flares could be detected. This includes the stars from tables \ref{apA:list_of_m_stars} to \ref{apA:list_of_f_stars}. The histograms in figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins} are stacked histograms. The flare amount of the individual stars are per bin are stacked on top of each other resulting in the final value.\\
The dip at phase $0.5 \pi$ which was present in the histogram for the M type stars (see figure \ref{fig:M-Flarecount-10_Bins} in section \ref{sec:results:m_dwarfs}) propagates and casues the dip to be also visible in figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins}. The peak at phase $1 \pi$ is also a result of propagation, but from the K and G type star data. Due to the large number of overall flares, the errorbars are small and the errorbars of the peak in the center at phase $1 \pi$ does not overlap with the other errorbars.\\
Looking at the same data with 30 bins over the phase in figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins}, the propagation of the variation in the data of the M type stars is clearly visible with the dip around phase $0.5 \pi$ and $1.4 \pi$. Additionally the peaks from the data of K (figure \ref{fig:K-Flarecount-30_Bins}) and G (figure \ref{fig:G-Flarecount-30_Bins}) type stars cause a wider peak at around phase $1 \pi$. Additionally there are also smaller, especially less wide peaks at around phases $0.4 \pi$, $0.7 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$.
The results combined for all 95 stars in the study for which flares could be detected is presented in this section. This includes the stars from tables \ref{apA:list_of_m_stars} to \ref{apA:list_of_f_stars}. The histograms in figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins} are stacked histograms. The flare number of the individual stars per bin are stacked on top of each other resulting in a total flare number histogram. Each color (red for M, orange for K, yellow for G and green for F type stars) represents the number of flares counted in the bin by the respective spectral type. For easier comparison, the histograms shown in the previous sections for M, K and G stars are shown again in figures \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_M} to \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_G}.
The dip at phase $0.5 \pi$ which was present in the histogram for the M type stars (see figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_M}) dominates the total flare count histogram. From figures \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_K}/\ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_K} and \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_G}/\ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_G} one can see that no local minimum at phase $0.5 \pi$ exists. The peak at phase $1 \pi$ is a result of the data from the K and G type stars, as those show significant peaks in this bin. Due to the large number of overall flares, the errorbars are small and the peak in the center at phase $1 \pi$ is significant. Looking at the same data with 30 bins over the phase in figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins}, the histogram is shaped mostly by the data of the M type stars, which is clearly visible with the dip around phase $0.5 \pi$ and $1.4 \pi$. Additionally the peaks from the data of K (figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_K}) and G (figure \ref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_G}) type stars cause a wider peak at around phase $1 \pi$. Additionally there are also smaller, especially less wide peaks at around phases $0.4 \pi$, $0.7 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.49\textwidth}
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins.png}
\caption{10 bins}
\caption{M, K, G and F type stars, 10 bins}
\label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.49\textwidth}
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins.png}
\caption{30 bins}
\caption{M, K, G and F type stars, 30 bins}
\label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the amount of flares per phase for all 95 dwarfs for which flares could be detected. The x-axis represents the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves. There are 10 bins (\subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins})/30 bins (\subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins}) of the phase, showing the number of flares per bin. The colors show the individual amount for each spectral type with the amount being stacked ontop of each other. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue line indicates an idialized phase (sine curve), with the maximum at phase $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$ and the minimum at phase $1 \pi$.}
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/M/M-Flarecount-10_Bins.png}
\caption{M type stars, 10 bins}
\label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_M}
\end{subfigure}
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/M/M-Flarecount-30_Bins.png}
\caption{M type stars, 30 bins}
\label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_M}
\end{subfigure}
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/K/K-Flarecount-10_Bins.png}
\caption{K type stars, 10 bins}
\label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_K}
\end{subfigure}
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/K/K-Flarecount-30_Bins.png}
\caption{K type stars, 30 bins}
\label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_K}
\end{subfigure}
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/G/G-Flarecount-10_Bins.png}
\caption{G type stars, 10 bins}
\label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_G}
\end{subfigure}
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.46\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/G/G-Flarecount-30_Bins.png}
\caption{G type stars, 30 bins}
\label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_G}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms showing the number of flares per phase for all 95 dwarfs for which flares could be detected in panels \subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins}. Panels \subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-10_Bins_M} to \subref{fig:MKGF-Flarecount-30_Bins_G} repeat the histograms for spectral types M, K and G respectively as direct comparison (same as histograms shown in figures \ref{fig:M-Flarecount}, \ref{fig:K-Flarecount} and \ref{fig:G-Flarecount}).}
\label{fig:MKGF-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
\FloatBarrier
\section{Individual stars \label{sec:results:individual}}
This section contains a selection of results for individual stars. The results for this section were selected because either they match what this study was looking for or because the opposite is the case or were in some other way interesting.
This section contains a selection of results for individual stars. The results for this section were selected because either they represent the expected case of more flares on the more spotted hemisphere of the star but also the other way round, i.e. less flares on the more spotted hemisphere.
\subsection{BD-08 995}
BD-08 995, also known by TIC 43472154, is a G type star with a surface temperature of 5316 K (\cite{revised_tess_input_catalogue}), which is \textasciitilde87 pc away (\cite{simbad}). It is a very active solar like star, producing over 200 superflares per year (\cite{tess_1st_year_superflares}). It has a rotational period of 2.8 days (\cite{tess_1st_year_superflares}). There are two TESS lightcurves available, sectors 5 and 32.\\
Looking at figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-10_Bins}, which shows the flare distribution across the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves with 10 bins, it shows a clear peak of flares appearance in the lightcurve minima at phase $1 \pi$. The errorbars of this wide peak only overlap with the first bin of the plot at phase $0 \pi$.
This bin belong to the phase maxima which also shows slight increase in flare activity at phase $0/2 \pi$ compared to the transition regions at around phase $0.5 \pi$ (maxima to minima) and $1.5 \pi$ (minima to maxima). Considering errors for this, the errorbars of the bins at the phase maxima overlap with those of the transition regions.\\
Figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-30_Bins} shows the same data just with 30 bins instead of 10. Ignoring the errorbars, it shows a similar picture as the previous figure. But due to the low number of total detected flares, and a the relatively large bin count, the errorbars become large compared to the individual bins. Due to this, the errorbars of most bins overlap with each other, with the exceptions of the the first bin at phase $0 \pi$ and the bin at phase \textasciitilde$1.1 \pi$, whichs erorbars only overlap with other higher bins like the ones at phase \textasciitilde$0.9 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.4 \pi$.
BD-08 995, also known as TIC 43472154, is a G type main-sequence star with a surface temperature of 5316 K \citep{revised_tess_input_catalogue}, and a distance of \textasciitilde87 pc \citep{simbad}. It is a very active solar like star, producing over 200 superflares per year \citep{tess_1st_year_superflares}. It has a rotational period of 2.8 days \citep{tess_1st_year_superflares}. There are two TESS lightcurves available in sectors 5 and 32.
Looking at figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-10_Bins}, which shows the flare distribution across the normalized phase of the folded lightcurves with 10 bins, one can see a clear peak at phase $1 \pi$. The bins forming the peak are significantly enhanced with respect to the neighbouring bins.
The bins of the phase maxima also show a slight increase in flare activity at phase $0/2 \pi$ compared to the phase transition regions around phase $0.5 \pi$ (maximum to minimum) and $1.5 \pi$ (minimum to maximum). The peaks at the phase maxima are not as significant as the peaks in phase minimum. Figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-30_Bins} shows the same data just with 30 bins instead of 10, but less significant. It shows a similar picture as the previous figure. But due to the low number of total detected flares, and a relatively large bin count, the errorbars become large compared to the individual bins. Due to this, the errorbars of most bins overlap with each other, with the exceptions of the the first bin at phase $0 \pi$ and the bin at phase \textasciitilde$1.1 \pi$, which errorbars only overlap with other larger bins like the ones at phase \textasciitilde$0.9 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.4 \pi$.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
@@ -343,19 +371,20 @@ Figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-30_Bins} shows the same data just with 30 b
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms of BD-08 995 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms of BD-08 995 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin with a total of 59 flares. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\label{fig:BD-08_995-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
The distribution of normalized flare peaks for BD-08 995 in figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-flarepeaks_1.2} shows that the highest flare peak appeared at around phase $0.1 \pi$ with a peak of \textasciitilde1.11. Other high flare peaks were detected at phases \textasciitilde$1 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.9 \pi$. Furthermore the flares around phase $1 \pi$ seem to have higher average peak.
The distribution of normalized flare peaks for BD-08 995 in figure \ref{fig:BD-08_995-flarepeaks_1.2} shows that the highest flare peak appeared around phase $0.1 \pi$ with a peak of \textasciitilde1.11. Other high flare peaks were detected at phases \textasciitilde$1 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.9 \pi$.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=.95\textwidth]{plots/sine/BD-08_995/BD-08\space\space\space995-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.2.png}
\caption{Distribution of flare peaks in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured for BD-08 995. Y-Axis shows the flare peak and is limited to the value of the highest peak detected. The x-axis shows the normalized phase.}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.6\textwidth]{plots/sine/BD-08_995/BD-08\space\space\space995-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.2.png}
\caption{Distribution of flare peaks in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured for BD-08 995. The y-axis shows the flare peak and the x-axis shows the normalized phase.}
\label{fig:BD-08_995-flarepeaks_1.2}
\end{figure}
Looking at the folded TESS lightcurves of sector 5 (\ref{fig:BD-08_995-TESS5_foldedLC}) and 32 (\ref{fig:BD-08_995-TESS32_foldedLC}) one can see the earlier presented distribution of flares and their peaks. In TESS sector 5 there appear comparatively many flares at around phase $-0.2$ (not normalized). The highest detected flare peak which was mentioned prior was detected in the TESS sector 32 lightcurve at phase $-1.2$.
Looking at the folded TESS lightcurves of sector 5 (\ref{fig:BD-08_995-TESS5_foldedLC}) and 32 (\ref{fig:BD-08_995-TESS32_foldedLC}) one can see the earlier presented distribution of flares and their peaks. In TESS sector 5 there appear comparatively many flares around phase $-0.2$ (not normalized, scaled between -phase/2 and +phase/2). The highest detected flare peak which was mentioned prior was detected in the TESS sector 32 lightcurve at phase $-1.2$.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -371,16 +400,16 @@ Looking at the folded TESS lightcurves of sector 5 (\ref{fig:BD-08_995-TESS5_fol
\caption{TESS Sector 32}
\label{fig:BD-08_995-TESS32_foldedLC}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for BD-08 995. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for BD-08 995. The blue lines show the calculated sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\label{fig:BD-08_995-TESS_foldedLCs}
\end{figure}
\FloatBarrier
\subsection{TYC 1360-957-1}
Not much is published about TYC 1360-957-1. It has been categorized as spectral type K on SIMBAD (\cite{simbad}). It has the TESS Input Catalogue number 247117382, and has been observed by TESS in sectors 44, 45 and 46.\\
Looking at the flare distribution histogram with 10 bins for this star in figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-10_Bins} one can see that the highest peaks in order are at phase \textasciitilde$0.7 \pi$, \textasciitilde$0.4 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.2 \pi$. The last one being two bins wide. The first two are, including error, above their surrounding bins, while for the third peak, the second peaks errorbar overlaps with those of the smaller bins.
Looking at the histogram with 30 bins of the same dataset (figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the first 2 peaks mentioned for the histogram with 10 bins are still visible. But compared to the privious figure, the low number of flares result in a rather large error. This causes the errorbars of the two mentioned bin peaks to overlap with the surrounding bins which could be estimated to be the average.
Not much is published about TYC 1360-957-1. It has been categorized as spectral type K on SIMBAD \citep{simbad}. It has the TESS Input Catalogue number 247117382, and has been observed by TESS in sectors 44, 45 and 46.
Looking at the flare distribution histogram with 10 bins for this star in figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-10_Bins} one can see that the largest peaks in order are at phase \textasciitilde$0.7 \pi$, \textasciitilde$0.4 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.2 \pi$, the last one being two bins wide. The first two are significant with respect to their neighboring bins and errors, while the third peak is only partly significant. Looking at the histogram with 30 bins of the same dataset (figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}), the first 2 peaks mentioned for the histogram with 10 bins are still pronounced. But compared to figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-10_Bins}, the low number of flares and the large number of bins result in a rather large error. Therefore these two peaks are not significant as those are within the error of the histogram.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -396,20 +425,20 @@ Looking at the histogram with 30 bins of the same dataset (figure \ref{fig:TYC_1
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms of TYC 1360-957-1 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms of TYC 1360-957-1 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin with a total of 40 flares. The error bars show the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\label{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
Figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-flarepeaks_1.31} presents the overall distribution on the normalized phase detected for TYC 1360-957-1 in this study. The three highest flare peaks detected were at a normalized phase of \textasciitilde$0.8 \pi$, which is very close to the phase minimum at $1 \pi$. Three more higher flare peaks stand out at phase $1.2 \pi$. While they are not as high as the previous three, they have a higher peak than the rest of the detected flares.
Figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-flarepeaks_1.31} presents the overall distribution of flares across the normalized phase detected for TYC 1360-957-1 in this study. The three largest flare peaks detected were at a normalized phase of \textasciitilde$0.8 \pi$, which is close to the phase minimum at $1 \pi$. This could indicate that they originate from the same spot or spot group. Three more larger flare peaks stand out at phase $1.2 \pi$. While they are not as large as the previous three, they have a higher peak than the rest of the detected flares.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=.95\textwidth]{plots/sine/TYC_1360-957-1/TYC 1360-957-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.3130771478482715.png}
\caption{Distribution of flare peaks in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured for TYC 1360-957-1. Y-Axis shows the flare peak and is limited to the value of the highest peak detected. The x-axis shows the normalized phase.}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.6\textwidth]{plots/sine/TYC_1360-957-1/TYC 1360-957-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.5.png}
\caption{Distribution of flare peaks in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured for TYC 1360-957-1. The y-axis shows the flare peak and the x-axis shows the normalized phase.}
\label{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-flarepeaks_1.31}
\end{figure}
The used folded lightcurves used can be seen in figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs}. This figure is split into the three different TESS sectors. In \subref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS44_foldedLC} sector 44 is visible. The lowest point of the folded lightcurve is slightly shifted from the center, which represents the lowest point of the sine fit. One can also see that two large flares happened at this point.
No such large flares can be seen in \subref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS45_foldedLC}, unlike in \subref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS46_foldedLC} which shows a large flare again.
The used folded lightcurves can be seen in figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs}. This figure is split into the three different TESS sectors. In the upper left panel of \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs} the folded lightcurve of sector 44 is shown. The minimum of the folded lightcurve is slightly shifted from the center. This is represented by the lowest point of the sine fit. One can also see that two large flares occured at the minimum of the phasefolded lightcurve. No such large flares can be seen in sector 45 (upper right panel of figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs}). Again in sector 46 (lower panel of figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs}) we see a large flare at the minimum of the phasefolded lightcurve.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -431,16 +460,16 @@ No such large flares can be seen in \subref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS45_foldedLC},
\caption{TESS Sector 46}
\label{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS46_foldedLC}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for TYC 1360-957-1. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for TYC 1360-957-1. The blue lines shows the sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\label{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-TESS_foldedLCs}
\end{figure}
\FloatBarrier
\subsection{TYC 4595-107-1}
TYC 4595-107-1, also known as TIC 394030788, is a G type star with an effective temperature of 5231 K, a radius of 0.9 $R_\odot$ (\cite{tess_2nd_year_superflares}, \cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}), mass of 0.89 $M_\odot$ (\cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}) and a rotational period of 3.3 days (\cite{tess_2nd_year_superflares}, \cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}) and was observed in 20 TESS sectors. The folded lightcurves for TYC 4595-107-1 can be found in appendix \ref{apB:TYC_4595-107-1}.\\
The first histogram, figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-10_Bins}, with 10 bins shows the accumulated data for all 20 observed lightcurves. Due to the high number of available lightcurves, and TYC 4595-107-1 being a very active star (\cite{tess_2nd_year_superflares}, \cite{superflare_rate_variation_g_type}), the total flare count is very high. There seems to be a base level of flares per bin of around 30 over the phase, with a large and two bin wide peak at around phase $0.6 to 0.8 \pi$. This increase in flares is high enough to be outside of the error of the base amount of flares. Another peak, even though less certain as its errorbar overlaps with the surrounding bins, appears at the bin at phase $1.9 \pi$. A similar increase in flares can be seen at the bin at $0.2 \pi$.\\
The histogram with 30 bins (figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}) shows a similar result. It shows a large increase in flares around phase $0.6 to 1 \pi$, as well at at $1.9 to 0.1 \pi$ and $0.4 \pi$. Only the first mentioned peak managed to be large enough though, to not have overlapping errors with the surrounding lower count bins.
TYC 4595-107-1, also known as TIC 394030788, is an active G-type main-sequence star with an effective temperature of 5231 K, a radius of 0.9 $R_\odot$ \citep{tess_2nd_year_superflares,superflare_rate_variation_g_type}, a mass of 0.89 $M_\odot$ \citep{superflare_rate_variation_g_type} and a rotational period of 3.3 days \citep{tess_2nd_year_superflares,superflare_rate_variation_g_type} and was observed in 20 TESS sectors. The folded lightcurves for TYC 4595-107-1 can be found in appendix \ref{apB:TYC_4595-107-1}.
The first histogram, figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-10_Bins}, with 10 bins shows the accumulated data for all 20 observed lightcurves. Due to the high number of available lightcurves, and TYC 4595-107-1 being a very active star \citep{tess_2nd_year_superflares,superflare_rate_variation_g_type}, the total flare count is very high. There seems to be a base level of flares per bin of around 30 over the phase, with a large and two bin wide peak at around phase $0.6$ to $0.8 \pi$. This increase in flare number is sufficiently large to be outside of the error of the average distribution. Another peak, even though less significant as its errorbar overlaps with the surrounding bins, appears at the bin at phase $1.9 \pi$. A similar, but a bit weaker increase in flares can be seen at the bin at $0.2 \pi$. The histogram with 30 bins (figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}) shows a similar result. It shows an increase in flare number around phase $0.6$ to $1 \pi$, as well as at $1.9$ to $0.1 \pi$ and $0.4 \pi$. Only the first mentioned peak managed to be large enough though, to be significantly above the error of the average distribution.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -456,16 +485,18 @@ The histogram with 30 bins (figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-30_Bins})
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms of TYC 4595-107-1 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms of TYC 4595-107-1 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin with a total of 365 flares. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\label{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
The flare peak at normalized phase distribution can be seen in figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-flarepeaks_1.27}. The strongest flare was detected at normalized phase \textasciitilde$0.8 \pi$. Two sligthly higher flare peaks have been detected at phases $0.5 \pi$ and $2 \pi$ respectively, but otherwise there does not seem to be any pattern.\\
The flare peak of the normalized phase distribution can be seen in figure \ref{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-flarepeaks_1.27}. The strongest flare was detected at normalized phase \textasciitilde$0.8 \pi$. Also, pronounced flare peaks have been detected at phases $0.5 \pi$ and $2 \pi$ respectively. Apart from that we do not see any other energetic flares. The majority of flares reveal flare peaks in the range of 1.01 to 1.05.
All of the folded lightcurves of TYC 4595-107-1 can be found in appendix \ref{apB:TYC_4595-107-1}, figures \ref{apB:fig:TYC_4595-107-1-TESS_foldedLC1} and \ref{apB:fig:TYC_4595-107-1-TESS_foldedLC2}.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=.95\textwidth]{plots/sine/TYC_4595-107-1/TYC 4595-107-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.2782052782832685.png}
\caption{Distribution of flare peaks in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured for TYC 1360-957-1. Y-Axis shows the flare peak and is limited to the value of the highest peak detected. The x-axis shows the normalized phase.}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.6\textwidth]{plots/sine/TYC_4595-107-1/TYC 4595-107-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.5.png}
\caption{Distribution of flare peaks in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured for TYC 4595-107-1. The y-axis shows the flare peak and the x-axis shows the normalized phase.}
\label{fig:TYC_4595-107-1-flarepeaks_1.27}
\end{figure}
@@ -473,12 +504,9 @@ All of the folded lightcurves of TYC 4595-107-1 can be found in appendix \ref{ap
\subsection{V* V471 Tau}
\label{results:v471_tau}
V471 Tau is a post-common envelope binary system consiting of a K2 type dwarf and a white dwarf (\cite{v471tau_revised}). The K2 dwarf has a always present dominant spot, which faces the white dwarf (\cite{V471tau_magnetic_activity}).
Figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins} show the histograms of 5 TESS folded lightcurves for V471 Tau with 10 and 30 bins respectively. The TESS lightcurves used are of sectors 42, 43, 44, 70 and 71. The lightcurve of K2 target table ID 80 was rejected by the algorithm. Due to the lightcurve spanning 90 days, and the variability in spots, the folding and fitting algorithm could not produce a reliable output.
The blue lines show the used fits for the individual folded lightcurves.
In the first figure, there appear two different peaks. The first being at phase $0.5 \pi$, and the second one at phase $1.1 \pi$. These bins are significantly higher than the surrounding bins with 13/15 flares respectively compared to 1 to 8 on the other bins.\\
As seen in figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS42_foldedLC}, \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS43_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS44_foldedLC} the transit of the white dwarf occurs at around phase 0 (in these figures) which translates to phase $1 \pi$ in the normalized phase.\\
Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins}) does not change the result much. Due to the individual flare count being lower per bin compared to the previous figure, the errorbars increase in size comparatively. There are still peaks at around $0.5 \pi$ and $1 \pi$.
V471 Tau is a post-common envelope binary system consiting of a K2 and a white dwarf \citep{v471tau_revised}. The K2 dwarf has a dominant spot facing the white dwarf all the time, as the system shows a bound rotation \citep{V471tau_magnetic_activity}.
Figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins} show the histograms of five TESS folded lightcurves for V471 Tau with 10 and 30 bins respectively. The TESS lightcurves used are from sectors 42, 43, 44, 70 and 71. The lightcurve of K2 target table ID 80 was rejected by the algorithm described in section \ref{sec:data:data_reduction}. Due to the lightcurve spanning 90 days, and the variability due to spots, the folding and fitting algorithm could not produce a reliable output. The blue lines show the used fits for the individual folded lightcurves. In the first figure, there appear two different peaks. The first being at phase $0.5 \pi$, and the second one at phase $1.1 \pi$. These bins are significantly higher than the remaining bins with 13/15 flares respectively compared to 1 to 8 in the other bins. Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins}) does not change the result much. Due to the individual flare count being lower per bin compared to figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-10_Bins}, the errorbars are comparatively larger. There are still peaks at \textasciitilde$0.5 \pi$ and $1 \pi$.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -494,11 +522,11 @@ Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins}) does not
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms of V471 Tau across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms of V471 Tau across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin with a total of 66 flares. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\label{fig:V471Tau-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
Looking at the folded lightcurves for this star (see figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS42_foldedLC}, \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS43_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS44_foldedLC}), the transit of the white dwarf (sudden dip in the folded lightcurve) is clearly visible, and always happens around phase 0. Additional folded lightcurves can be seen in appendix \ref{apB:V471_tau}, figure \ref{apB:fig:V471Tau-TESS_foldedLC} like the ones which were folded by the rotational period for when a spot modulation was detected.
Looking at the folded lightcurves for this star (see figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS42_foldedLC}, \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS43_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:V471Tau-TESS44_foldedLC}), the transit of the white dwarf (sudden dip in the folded lightcurve) is clearly visible, and occurs happens around phase 0. Additionally lightcurves folded by the rotational period for the sectors which have a spot modulation period different from the rotational period can be seen in figure \ref{apB:fig:V471Tau-TESS_foldedLC} from appendix \ref{apB:V471_tau}.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -520,29 +548,29 @@ Looking at the folded lightcurves for this star (see figures \ref{fig:V471Tau-TE
\caption{TESS Sector 44}
\label{fig:V471Tau-TESS44_foldedLC}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for V* V471 Tau. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for V* V471 Tau. The blue lines show the calculated sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\label{fig:V471Tau-TESS_foldedLCs}
\end{figure}
Figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-flarepeaks_1.053} shows the normalized phase and peak of each flare in the data during which part of the phase it happened. It shows that the largest flares happened at around phase $0.5 \pi$, $1 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$. The phase in which the white dwarf transit happens is at around phase $1 \pi$.
In figure \ref{fig:V471Tau-flarepeaks_1.1} the flare peak across the normalized phase distribution can be seen. It reveals that the largest flares occured around phase $0.5 \pi$, $1 \pi$ and $1.5 \pi$. The phase in which the white dwarf transit occurs is around phase $1 \pi$.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\includegraphics[width=.95\textwidth]{plots/sine/V471Tau/V_star_ V471 Tau-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.0539907609848342.png}
\caption{Distribution of flare peaks in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured. Y-Axis shows the flare peak and is limited to the value of the highest peak detected. The x-axis shows the normalized phase.}
\label{fig:V471Tau-flarepeaks_1.053}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=.6\textwidth]{plots/sine/V471Tau/V_star_ V471 Tau-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.1.png}
\caption{Distribution of flare peaks in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured. The y-axis shows the flare peak and the x-axis shows the normalized phase.}
\label{fig:V471Tau-flarepeaks_1.1}
\end{figure}
\FloatBarrier
\subsection{V* HK Aqr}
\label{results:hk_aqr}
HK Aqr is a M dwarf with a mass of 0.57 $M_\odot$, a radius of 0.53 $R_\odot$ and is around 22.3 pc away from our solar system. Its effective temperature is aroun 3800 K (\cite{conch_shell_m_dwarfs}). It was observed in four TESS sectors.
HK Aqr is mentioned here, as it is a star, for which the optimize fold algorithm partially broke. This happened for its lightcurves for the sectors 29 and 42. The algorithm found for both periodograms a second signal for a possible period. This resulted in the folded lightcurves seen in figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS42_foldedLC}. Figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins} were created with this dataset.\\
In figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} one can see an increase in flares at around phase $1.3 \pi$. This peak is high enough to be outside the error range of the lower flare count bins between phase $0 to 1 \pi$. Figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins} paints a similar picture. Additionally it shows a peak at phase $0 \pi$ though, which is during the phase maximum, as well as one at around phase $1.6 \pi$ which is in the transition from minima to maxima.\\
Figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} show the historgrams for the data of the two folded TESS lightcurves of sectors 29 and 42 which were flagged as period folded with 10 and 30 bins respectively. The folded lightcurves can be found in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS_foldedLCs_Period}.
In figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} the overall flare distribution seems to be relatively high from phase $0.2 \pi$ to $1.4 \pi$, with a peak at phase $1.2 \pi$. The amount of detected flares during the maximum of the lightcurves at phase $1.8$ to $0.2 \pi$ is low compared to that. Even including the errorbars it cannot reach the previous bins. An additional dip of the same flare count can be seen at phase $1.5 \pi$.
The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} is very low. Due to this all errorbars overlap. Nontheless there are two bins which stand out at phases \textasciitilde$0.4 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.25 \pi$ which would be in the transition from maxima to minima, and shortly after the minima respectively.
HK Aqr is an M dwarf with a mass of 0.57 $M_\odot$, a radius of 0.53 $R_\odot$ and a distance of 22.3 pc. Its effective temperature is 3800 K \citep{conch_shell_m_dwarfs}. It was observed in four TESS sectors. For the analysis of HK Aqr the optimize fold algorithm partially broke. This happened for its lightcurves for TESS sectors 29 and 42. The algorithm found for both periodograms a second signal for a possible period. This resulted in the folded lightcurves seen in figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS29_foldedLC} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS42_foldedLC}. Figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins} were created with this dataset.
In figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins} one can see an increase in flare number at phase $1.3 \pi$. This peak is sufficiently large to be outside the error range of the lower flare count bins between phase $0$ to $1 \pi$. Figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins} shows a similar picture. Additionally it shows a peak at phase $0 \pi$ though, which means during the phase maximum, as well as one around phase $1.6 \pi$ which is in the transition from minimum to maximum.
Figures \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} and \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} show the histograms for the data of the two folded TESS lightcurves of sectors 29 and 42 which were period folded with 10 and 30 bins respectively. The folded lightcurves can be found in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS_foldedLCs_Period}. In figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} the overall flare distribution seems to be relatively high from phase $0.2 \pi$ to $1.4 \pi$, with a peak at phase $1.2 \pi$. The number of detected flares during the maximum of the lightcurves at phase $1.8$ to $0.2 \pi$ is low compared to that. An additional dip of the same flare count can be seen at phase $1.5 \pi$. The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} together with larger number of bins results in large errors. Nontheless there are two bins which stand out at phases \textasciitilde$0.4 \pi$ and \textasciitilde$1.25 \pi$ which would be in the transition from maximum to minimum, and shortly after the minimum respectively. In figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-TESS_foldedLCs1} we see that the three strongest (according to their flare peak) flares all occur at the same phase. Also here, and similar to the strong flares seen in figure \ref{fig:TYC_1360-957-1-flarepeaks_1.31}, those may originate from the same spot or spot group.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -558,7 +586,7 @@ The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} is very low.
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms of V* HK Aqr across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms of V* HK Aqr across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin with a total of 79 flares. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\label{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
@@ -593,7 +621,7 @@ The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} is very low.
\caption{TESS Sector 69}
\label{fig:HKAqr-TESS69_foldedLC}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for V* HK Aqr. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for V* HK Aqr. The blue lines show the calculated sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\label{fig:HKAqr-TESS_foldedLCs2}
\end{figure}
@@ -611,7 +639,7 @@ The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} is very low.
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms of V* HK Aqr across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms of V* HK Aqr across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin with a total of 38 flares. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\label{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount_Period}
\end{figure}
@@ -629,7 +657,7 @@ The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} is very low.
\caption{TESS Sector 42}
\label{fig:HKAqr-TESS42_foldedLC_Period}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for V* HK Aqr. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for V* HK Aqr. The blue lines show the calculated sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\label{fig:HKAqr-TESS_foldedLCs_Period}
\end{figure}
@@ -637,10 +665,9 @@ The flare count in figure \ref{fig:HKAqr-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} is very low.
\subsection{KOI-256}
\label{results:koi_256}
KOI-256 is, similarly to V471 Tau, a binary system consisting of a M dwarf and a white dwarf (\cite{eclipsing_binaries_koi_256}, \cite{koi_256_effects_of_magnetic}). It has a mass of 0.51 M$_\odot$, a radius of 0.540 R$_\odot$ and an effective temperature of 3450 K (\cite{eclipsing_binaries_koi_256}). Similarly to HK Aqr, a second periodicity was detected, which was the used to fold for spot modulation. This happened for Kepler target table ids 37, 38, 53 and TESS sector 80.\\
Figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows the histogram with 10 bins for KOI-256 with all detected spot modulations, including the mentioned ones that were wrongfully detected. This figure shows a increase in flare count around phase $1 \pi$, which peaks at phases $0.7 \pi$ and around $1.4 \pi$. Additionally there appears a peak at phase $1.7 \pi$.
Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins}) shows clearer peaks at phase $0.7 \pi$ as well as $1.2 \pi$. Including errorbars, the mentioned peaks of both figures are above their surrounding bins.
KOI-256 is, similarly to V471 Tau, a binary system consisting of an M dwarf and a white dwarf \citep{eclipsing_binaries_koi_256,koi_256_effects_of_magnetic}. It has a mass of 0.51 M$_\odot$, a radius of 0.540 R$_\odot$ and an effective temperature of 3450 K \citep{eclipsing_binaries_koi_256}. Similarly to HK Aqr, a second periodicity was detected, which was used to fold for spot modulation. This happened for Kepler target table ids 37, 38, 53 and TESS sector 80.
Figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins} shows the histogram with 10 bins for KOI-256 with all detected spot modulations, including the mentioned ones that were wrongly detected. This figure shows an increase in flare count around phase $1 \pi$, which peaks at phases $0.7 \pi$ and a bit weaker around $1.4 \pi$. Additionally there appears a peak at phase $1.7 \pi$. Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins}) shows more distinct peaks at phase $0.7 \pi$ as well as at $1.2 \pi$. The mentioned peaks of both figures are significantly above their surrounding bins.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -656,13 +683,13 @@ Increasing the bins to 30 (figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins}) shows cl
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms of KOI-256 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms of KOI-256 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin with a total of 167 flares. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\label{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
Figures \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} and \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} show the histograms based on the, by the optimized fold algorithm determined, period folded lightcurves. Therefor only the period folded lightcurves from Kepler target table id 37, 38, 53 and TESS sector 80 were used. The folded lightcurves can be found in appendix \ref{apB:koi-256}, figures \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-Kepler_foldedLC} and \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-TESS_foldedLC}.
In figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period}, which shows a histogram with 10 bins for the flare distribution across the normalized phase, there is a clear increase of flares seen around the minima at phase $1 \pi$. The distribution nearly reminds one of a normal distribution, with the exception that the last two bins around phase $1.8 \pi$ to $2 \pi$ do not fall off as much as the first bin at phase $0 \pi$ does compared to the bins in the center.\\
Looking at figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} which shows the same data, just with 30 bins, the peak at the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ is still present. Additionally there are three more peaks visible at around phases $0.3 \pi$, $1.4 \pi$ and $2 \pi$. These three peaks are only 1 bin wide and stand out far from their surrounding by around 1.5 times the errorbar. The peak in the center on the otherhand has gradual increases/descreases before and after, with the exception of the dip in the bin right before at around phase $0.9 \pi$.
Figures \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period} and \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} show the histograms based on the, by the optimized fold algorithm determined, period folded lightcurves. Therefore only the period folded lightcurves from Kepler target table id 37, 38, 53 and TESS sector 80 were used. The folded lightcurves can be found in appendix \ref{apB:koi-256}, figures \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-Kepler_foldedLC} and \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-TESS_foldedLC}. In figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-10_Bins_Period}, which shows the histogram with 10 bins for the flare distribution across the normalized phase, there is a clear increase of flare number seen around the minimum at phase $1 \pi$. The distribution is nearly comparable to a normal distribution, except for the last two bins.
Looking at figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} which shows the same data, just with 30 bins, the peak at the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ is still present. Additionally there are three more peaks visible around phases $0.3 \pi$, $1.4 \pi$, and $2 \pi$. These three peaks are only 1 bin wide and stand out far from their surrounding by around 1.5 times the errorbar. The peak in the center on the other hand shows gradual increases/decreases before and after, with the exception of the dip in the bin right before phase $0.9 \pi$.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -678,11 +705,11 @@ Looking at figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period} which shows the sa
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount-30_Bins_Period}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms of KOI-256 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms of KOI-256 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin with a total of 66 flares. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\label{fig:KOI-256-Flarecount_Period}
\end{figure}
Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phases of the two datasets in figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks} shows that the highest normalized flare peaks of up to 1.7 were detected in the lightcurves with proper period detection (folded lightcurves in appendix \ref{apB:koi-256}, figures \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-Kepler_periodfoldedLC} and \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-TESS_periodfoldedLC}). Comparing flare peaks which exist in both data sample, one can see that the highest peak of \subref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.3_period} at around phase $0.8 \pi$ and a normalized peak of \textasciitilde1.3 was moved to around phase $0.4 \pi$ in figure \subref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.7_spot} due to the additional found periodicity.
Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phases of the two datasets in figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks} shows that the highest normalized flare peaks of up to 1.7 were detected in the lightcurves with proper period detection (folded lightcurves in appendix \ref{apB:koi-256}, figures \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-Kepler_periodfoldedLC} and \ref{apB:fig:KOI-256-TESS_periodfoldedLC}). Comparing flare peaks which exist in both data samples, one can see that the highest peak of \ref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.3_period} around phase $0.8 \pi$ and a normalized peak of \textasciitilde1.3 was moved to phase $0.4 \pi$ in figure \ref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.7_spot} due to the additional detected periodicity.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -698,7 +725,7 @@ Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phas
\caption{Period folded}
\label{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.3_period}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Distribution of flare peaks for KOI-256 in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured. Y-Axis shows the flare peak and is limited to the value of the highest peak detected. The x-axis shows the normalized phase.}
\caption{Distributions of flare peaks for KOI-256 in relation to the normalized phase at which they occured. Y-Axis shows the flare peak and is limited to the value of the highest peak detected. The x-axis shows the normalized phase. Panel \subref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.7_spot} flare peak distribution on the normalized phase for the detected spot modulation. Panel \subref{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks_1.3_period} shows the flare distribution for the detected rotational periods.}
\label{fig:KOI-256-flarepeaks}
\end{figure}
@@ -706,7 +733,9 @@ Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phas
\subsection{2MASS J19230963+3739397}
\label{results:2MASS_J19230963p3739397}
2MASS J19230963+3739397, also known as KIC 2300039 or TIC 122672447, is a M dwarf around 213 pc away from our solar system (\cite{simbad}). It was observed in 3 Kepler target table IDs as well as 4 TESS sectors. The results for its flare distributions can be seen in figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount}. It was selected as an example as it shows quite the opposite of what was expected. As seen in the histogram with 10 bins (figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount-10_Bins}) it shows an increased flare occurance during the transition between phase minimum and maximum and during the maximum (phase $1.3 \pi$ to $2 \pi$). An additional significant peak is seen in the second bin. The flare count during the phase minimum at phase $1 \pi$ is at a minimum. Increasing the bin count to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount-30_Bins}) creates a similarly shaped histogram. The errorbars increase in size relatively though, and makes the individual less accurate. The folded lightcurves for the Kepler target table IDs 47, 48 and 49 can be seen in figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Kepler_foldedLCs}. There were no flares detected in the TESS lightcurves. As seen in the Kepler lightcurves, flare peaks as high as 1.5 have been detected, all around the phase maxima.
2MASS J19230963+3739397, also known as KIC 2300039 or TIC 122672447, is an M dwarf around 213 pc away from our solar system \citep{simbad}. It was observed in three Kepler target table IDs as well as four TESS sectors.
The results for its flare distributions can be seen in figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount}. It was selected as an example as it shows the opposite of what is expected. As seen in the histogram with 10 bins (figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount-10_Bins}) it shows an increased flare occurrence during the transition between phase minimum and maximum and during the maximum (phase $1.3 \pi$ to $2 \pi$). An additional significant peak is seen in the second bin. The flare count during the phase minimum at phase $1 \pi$ is lowest. Increasing the bin count to 30 (see figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount-30_Bins}) creates a similarly shaped histogram. The errorbars are larger, and the distribution less significant. The folded lightcurves for the Kepler target table IDs 47, 48 and 49 can be seen in figure \ref{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Kepler_foldedLCs}. There were no flares detected in the TESS lightcurves. As seen in the Kepler lightcurves, flare peaks as high as 1.5 have been detected, all around the phase maxima.
\begin{figure}[pt!]
\centering
@@ -722,7 +751,7 @@ Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phas
\caption{30 bins}
\label{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount-30_Bins}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Histograms of 2MASS J19230963+3739397 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\caption{Histograms of 2MASS J19230963+3739397 across the phase showing the number of flares in each bin with a total of 63 flares. The error bar shows the standard deviation for the histogram. The blue lines show the various fits for the folded lightcurves used to generate the data, with the phase minimum at $1 \pi$ and phase maximum at $0 \pi$/$2 \pi$.}
\label{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Flarecount}
\end{figure}
@@ -743,9 +772,9 @@ Comparing the results of the flare peak distributions across the normalized phas
\begin{subfigure}[b]{.49\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{plots/sine/2MASS J19230963+3739397/2MASS J19230963+3739397_Kepler-49-foldedLC-marked_fit_flares.png}
\caption{Kepler target table ID 48}
\label{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Kepler48_foldedLC}
\caption{Kepler target table ID 49}
\label{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Kepler49_foldedLC}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for 2MASS J19230963+3739397. The blue lines shows the sine fits calculated. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\caption{Folded lightcurves for 2MASS J19230963+3739397. The blue lines show the calculated sine fits. The red crosses indicate the detected flare peaks.}
\label{fig:2MASS_J19230963p3739397-Kepler_foldedLCs}
\end{figure}
Physics_Thesis_Template/content/titlepages.tex
+19 -19
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@@ -1,23 +1,23 @@
% !TEX root = ../thesis-example.tex
%
% ------------------------------------ --> cover title page
\begin{titlepage}
\pdfbookmark[0]{Cover}{Cover}
\flushright
\hfill
\vfill
{\color{ctgreenblue}\LARGE\thesisTitle \par}
{\color{ctcolorgray}\large\thesisSubtitle}
\color{ctgreenblue}\rule[5pt]{\textwidth}{1.25pt} \par
{\color{ctgreenblue}\Large\thesisName}
\vfill
\textit{\large\thesisDate}
\end{titlepage}
% % ------------------------------------ --> cover title page
% \begin{titlepage}
% \pdfbookmark[0]{Cover}{Cover}
% \flushright
% \hfill
% \vfill
% {\color{ctgreenblue}\LARGE\thesisTitle \par}
% {\color{ctcolorgray}\large\thesisSubtitle}
% \color{ctgreenblue}\rule[5pt]{\textwidth}{1.25pt} \par
% {\color{ctgreenblue}\Large\thesisName}
% \vfill
% \textit{\large\thesisDate}
% \end{titlepage}
% ------------------------------------ --> page 2 left empty on purpose
\input{content/titlepageKFU} % uncomment for KFU style
%\input{content/titlepageTU} % uncomment for TU style
%\input{content/titlepageKFU} % uncomment for KFU style
\input{content/titlepageTU} % uncomment for TU style
% ------------------------------------ --> lower title back for single page layout
@@ -29,12 +29,12 @@
\physbf{\thesisName} \\
\physit{\thesisTitle~$-$~\thesisSubtitle} \\[0.5em]
Thesis in partial fulfillment of the \hbox{requirements for the degree of \thesisDegree}; \\
%Thesis submitted on \red{Month DD, 202X}. %and defended on \red{Month DD, 2020}. %e.g. 2020, November 15, 2020. Before submission, uncomment this line, fill out the date, remove the red color of the data and delete the following line, containing 'Unsubmitted Thesis Manuscript'.
\red{\bfseries Unsubmitted Thesis Manuscript: compiled on \thesisDate}
Thesis submitted on June 11, 2025, and defended on July 10, 2025. %e.g. 2020, November 15, 2020. Before submission, uncomment this line, fill out the date, remove the red color of the data and delete the following line, containing 'Unsubmitted Thesis Manuscript'.
%\red{\bfseries Unsubmitted Thesis Manuscript: compiled on \thesisDate}
\\[0.5em]
Institute of Physics, NAWI Graz, University of Graz.\\[1.5em]
\physit{Supervisors}: \thesisFirstSupervisor $^1$ and
\thesisSecondSupervisor $^1$\\
\physit{Supervisor}: \thesisFirstSupervisor $^1$\\
\physit{Co-Supervisor}: \thesisSecondSupervisor $^1$\\
%\physit{Jury panel}:
$^1$~Institut für Physik, \hbox{NAWI\,Graz, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 5/II, 8010 Graz, Austria.}\\
}
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Physics_Thesis_Template/main.bbl-SAVE-ERROR
+567 -78
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@@ -1230,6 +1230,38 @@
\endverb
\keyw{methods: data analysis,methods: miscellaneous,virtual observatory tools}
\endentry
\entry{sunspot_magfieldlines_image}{misc}{}{}
\name{author}{1}{}{%
{{hash=2f1e4e1c8dc4df33cefc4d3101363ca1}{%
family={{Australian Space Weather Forecasting Centre}},
familyi={A\bibinitperiod}}}%
}
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\field{extradatescope}{labelyear}
\field{labeldatesource}{url}
\field{labelnamesource}{author}
\field{labeltitlesource}{title}
\field{title}{The Magnetic Fields around Sunspots}
\field{urlday}{2}
\field{urlmonth}{6}
\field{urlyear}{2025}
\field{urldateera}{ce}
\verb{urlraw}
\verb https://www.sws.bom.gov.au/Educational/2/2/8
\endverb
\verb{url}
\verb https://www.sws.bom.gov.au/Educational/2/2/8
\endverb
\endentry
\entry{harvard_spectral_types_teff}{misc}{}{}
\name{author}{1}{}{%
{{hash=c8b19cebd0d04b728df521ed9522e046}{%
@@ -1940,6 +1972,72 @@
\endverb
\keyw{stars: activity,stars: flare,stars: low-mass,stars: magnetic field,Astrophysics - Solar and Stellar Astrophysics}
\endentry
\entry{soho_esa}{misc}{}{}
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{{hash=afafc7a086f96baed3f76650e4fcdc5d}{%
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\field{title}{SOHO}
\field{urlday}{2}
\field{urlmonth}{6}
\field{urlyear}{2025}
\field{urldateera}{ce}
\verb{urlraw}
\verb https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/SOHO
\endverb
\verb{url}
\verb https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/SOHO
\endverb
\endentry
\entry{sun_photosphere_mag_field_strength}{misc}{}{}
\name{author}{1}{}{%
{{hash=0169748fb52d0b3b4e3fcebeb75a7cb0}{%
family={Fox},
familyi={F\bibinitperiod},
given={Karen},
giveni={K\bibinitperiod}}}%
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\field{labelnamesource}{author}
\field{labeltitlesource}{title}
\field{title}{{The Dynamic Solar Magnetic Field with Introduction}}
\field{urlday}{2}
\field{urlmonth}{6}
\field{urlyear}{2025}
\field{urldateera}{ce}
\verb{urlraw}
\verb https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4623/
\endverb
\verb{url}
\verb https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4623/
\endverb
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\entry{conch_shell_m_dwarfs}{article}{}{}
\name{author}{9}{}{%
{{hash=a5b91fc80ed0608aeab6c2bacd2fcc3c}{%
@@ -2127,7 +2225,6 @@
\field{labeldatesource}{}
\field{labelnamesource}{author}
\field{labeltitlesource}{title}
\field{abstract}{Kepler mission results are rapidly contributing to fundamentally new discoveries in both the exoplanet and asteroseismology fields. The data returned from Kepler are unique in terms of the number of stars observed, precision of photometry for time series observations, and the temporal extent of high duty cycle observations. As the first mission to provide extensive time series measurements on thousands of stars over months to years at a level hitherto possible only for the Sun, the results from Kepler will vastly increase our knowledge of stellar variability for quiet solar-type stars. Here, we report on the stellar noise inferred on the timescale of a few hours of most interest for detection of exoplanets via transits. By design the data from moderately bright Kepler stars are expected to have roughly comparable levels of noise intrinsic to the stars and arising from a combination of fundamental limitations such as Poisson statistics and any instrument noise. The noise levels attained by Kepler on-orbit exceed by some 50% the target levels for solar-type, quiet stars. We provide a decomposition of observed noise for an ensemble of 12th magnitude stars arising from fundamental terms (Poisson and readout noise), added noise due to the instrument and that intrinsic to the stars. The largest factor in the modestly higher than anticipated noise follows from intrinsic stellar noise. We show that using stellar parameters from galactic stellar synthesis models, and projections to stellar rotation, activity, and hence noise levels reproduce the primary intrinsic stellar noise features.}
\field{journaltitle}{The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series}
\field{month}{10}
\field{number}{1}
@@ -2879,60 +2976,6 @@
\verb 10.1086/126150
\endverb
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\field{title}{Kepler}
\field{urlday}{1}
\field{urlmonth}{6}
\field{urlyear}{2025}
\field{urldateera}{ce}
\verb{urlraw}
\verb https://archive.stsci.edu/missions-and-data/kepler
\endverb
\verb{url}
\verb https://archive.stsci.edu/missions-and-data/kepler
\endverb
\endentry
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\field{sortinit}{K}
\field{sortinithash}{c02bf6bff1c488450c352b40f5d853ab}
\field{extradatescope}{labelyear}
\field{labeldatesource}{url}
\field{labeltitlesource}{title}
\field{title}{{Kepler - In Depth}}
\field{urlday}{1}
\field{urlmonth}{6}
\field{urlyear}{2025}
\field{urldateera}{ce}
\verb{urlraw}
\verb https://science.nasa.gov/mission/kepler/in-depth/
\endverb
\verb{url}
\verb https://science.nasa.gov/mission/kepler/in-depth/
\endverb
\endentry
\entry{kepler_missions_caltech}{misc}{}{}
\field{sortinit}{K}
\field{sortinithash}{c02bf6bff1c488450c352b40f5d853ab}
\field{extradatescope}{labelyear}
\field{labeldatesource}{url}
\field{labeltitlesource}{title}
\field{title}{Kepler Mission Information}
\field{urlday}{1}
\field{urlmonth}{6}
\field{urlyear}{2025}
\field{urldateera}{ce}
\verb{urlraw}
\verb https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/docs/KeplerMission.html
\endverb
\verb{url}
\verb https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/docs/KeplerMission.html
\endverb
\endentry
\entry{V471tau_magnetic_activity}{article}{}{}
\name{author}{9}{}{%
{{hash=7741bee37e2b3b818cfd6daff1bcc632}{%
@@ -3549,6 +3592,108 @@
\endverb
\keyw{brown dwarfs,radio continuum: stars,stars: activity,stars: low-mass,stars: magnetic field,Astrophysics - Solar and Stellar Astrophysics}
\endentry
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\name{author}{1}{}{%
{{hash=2a435402df58ce0998a3896a6a9711f7}{%
family={{Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes}},
familyi={M\bibinitperiod}}}%
}
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\field{title}{K2}
\field{urlday}{1}
\field{urlmonth}{6}
\field{urlyear}{2025}
\field{urldateera}{ce}
\verb{urlraw}
\verb https://archive.stsci.edu/missions-and-data/k2
\endverb
\verb{url}
\verb https://archive.stsci.edu/missions-and-data/k2
\endverb
\endentry
\entry{kepler_missions_and_data_mast}{misc}{}{}
\name{author}{1}{}{%
{{hash=2a435402df58ce0998a3896a6a9711f7}{%
family={{Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes}},
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\field{labelnamesource}{author}
\field{labeltitlesource}{title}
\field{title}{Kepler}
\field{urlday}{1}
\field{urlmonth}{6}
\field{urlyear}{2025}
\field{urldateera}{ce}
\verb{urlraw}
\verb https://archive.stsci.edu/missions-and-data/kepler
\endverb
\verb{url}
\verb https://archive.stsci.edu/missions-and-data/kepler
\endverb
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\entry{tess_extended_mission_1}{misc}{}{}
\name{author}{1}{}{%
{{hash=2a435402df58ce0998a3896a6a9711f7}{%
family={{Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes}},
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\strng{authornamehash}{b51b77a277cdec6daf1cfafbc5c3a3fa}
\strng{authorfullhash}{b51b77a277cdec6daf1cfafbc5c3a3fa}
\strng{authorfullhashraw}{b51b77a277cdec6daf1cfafbc5c3a3fa}
\field{sortinit}{T}
\field{sortinithash}{9af77f0292593c26bde9a56e688eaee9}
\field{extradatescope}{labelyear}
\field{labeldatesource}{url}
\field{labelnamesource}{author}
\field{labeltitlesource}{title}
\field{title}{{TESS Extended Mission}}
\field{urlday}{1}
\field{title}{SOHO}
\field{urlday}{2}
\field{urlmonth}{6}
\field{urlyear}{2025}
\field{urldateera}{ce}
\verb{urlraw}
\verb https://archive.stsci.edu/contents/newsletters/august-2020/tess-extended-mission
\verb https://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/
\endverb
\verb{url}
\verb https://archive.stsci.edu/contents/newsletters/august-2020/tess-extended-mission
\verb https://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/
\endverb
\endentry
\entry{kepler_archive_manual}{article}{}{}
Physics_Thesis_Template/main.pdf
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Physics_Thesis_Template/main.tex
+9 -4
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@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@
\newcommand{\thesisTitle}{Relating spot and flare/superflare occurrence on dwarf stars}
\newcommand{\thesisSubtitle}{}
\newcommand{\thesisName}{Markus Ornik}
\newcommand{\thesisName}{Markus Ornik, BSc}
\newcommand{\thesisSubject}{Master's Thesis}
\newcommand{\thesisDegree}{Master of Science $-$ MSc}
\newcommand{\thesisDate}{\today}
@@ -87,6 +87,7 @@
\usepackage{textgreek} %allow for greek character in text, e.g. \textbeta
\usepackage{setspace, graphicx, hyphenat, fancyhdr, ifthen, everypage, enumitem, setspace}
\usepackage{xurl}
\usepackage[pdfa]{hyperref}
%\RequirePackage[dvipsnames]{xcolor}
@@ -162,6 +163,8 @@
% Load and Configure Packages
% **************************************************
\usepackage{amsmath,amssymb}
\usepackage{cleveref}
\crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3}
\usepackage{pdfpages}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} % defines file's character encoding
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
@@ -267,14 +270,16 @@
\thesisauthor[Firstname Lastname]{\thesisName}
\thesistitle[Short Thesis Title]{\thesisTitle \\ \thesisSubtitle}
\thesisdate[ ]{\thesisDate}
\supervisortitle{{Supervisors}} %Select singular/plural
\supervisortitle{{Supervisor}} %Select singular/plural
% Supervisor info
\supervisor{%
\thesisFirstSupervisor\\
\thesisUniversityInstitute, \thesisUniversity
}
\cosupervisor{
\thesisSecondSupervisor\\
\thesisUniversityInstitute, \thesisUniversity
}
\academicdegree{Master of Science}
\curriculum{Physics} %Degree programme
Physics_Thesis_Template/plots/sine/TYC_1360-957-1/TYC 1360-957-1-Flarepeaks_maxY-1.5.png
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Physics_Thesis_Template/tugrazthesis.sty
+41
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@@ -67,6 +67,18 @@
(set with \texttt{\textbackslash supervisor\{\}})
}
\newcommand{\supervisor}[1]{\def\@supervisor{#1}}
\def\@cosupervisortitle{Co-Supervisor}
\newcommand{\cosupervisortitle}[1]{\def\@cosupervisortitle{#1}}
\def\@cosupervisor{%
Firstname Lastname, academic degrees of supervisor\\
up to 2 lines
\par
Institute's name\\
up to 2 lines
\par
(set with \texttt{\textbackslash cosupervisor\{\}})
}
\newcommand{\cosupervisor}[1]{\def\@cosupervisor{#1}}
\def\@location{Graz}
\newcommand{\location}[1]{\def\@location{#1}}
@@ -83,6 +95,8 @@
\linespread{1.2}%
\iftugraz@nawi
\noindent
\unigrazlogoscaled[17mm]
\hfill
\nawilogoscaled[46mm]
\hfill
\tuglogoscaled[29mm]
@@ -132,6 +146,11 @@
{\bfseries\tugraz@titlefont\fontsize{10pt}{12pt}\selectfont \@supervisortitle \par}
{\fontsize{10pt}{12pt}\selectfont \@supervisor \par}
%\iftugraz@individual\vskip1.2cm\else\vskip1.4cm\fi
{\bfseries\tugraz@titlefont\fontsize{10pt}{12pt}\selectfont \@cosupervisortitle \par}
{\fontsize{10pt}{12pt}\selectfont \@cosupervisor \par}
\iftugraz@individual\vskip1.2cm\else\vskip1.4cm\fi
{\fontsize{8pt}{11pt}\selectfont \@location, \@thesisdate \par}
@@ -692,4 +711,26 @@
\end{tikzpicture}
}
\providecommand{\unigrazlogoscaled}[1][12.1mm]{\resizebox{#1}{!}{\unigrazlogo}}
\definecolor{cbdbcbc}{RGB}{189,188,188}
\definecolor{cfcd205}{RGB}{252,210,5}
\definecolor{c231f20}{RGB}{35,31,32}
\def \globalscale {1.000000}
\providecommand{\unigrazlogo}{%
\begin{tikzpicture}[y=1cm, x=1cm, yscale=\globalscale,xscale=\globalscale, every node/.append style={scale=\globalscale}, inner sep=0pt, outer sep=0pt]
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\path[fill=cfcd205,nonzero rule,cm={ 0.1333,-0.0,-0.0,-0.1333,(0.0, 0.4708)}] (11.4061, -18.1196) -- (24.9469, -18.1196) -- (24.9469, -4.5385) -- (11.4061, -4.5385) -- (11.4061, -18.1196);
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\end{tikzpicture}
}
%}}}